Philosophy

The conversation between these two friends presents two moralities of reasoning and sanity (rationalism) that continues to form basic foundations of a society. Socrates found himself in a tough position after his friend Crito visited him in prison with an intention of helping him escape. Socrates had been wrongly accused of being immoral and corrupting the youth of Athens. Socrates was full aware of his sentence of death by drinking poison yet when his friend came to rescue him, he preferred to face the judgment rather than running away. Through Crito, his friends were concerned of losing a dear friend and that is why they were willing to corrupt the law and get their friend out of prison.  Socrates is seen here to side with the harsh decision government than his friends (Benson, 1992). The moral stand taken by Socrates is guided by his reasoning that, the society has its right in asserting its morals. To him, the society he was living in had found him guilty of contradicting its morals.

He explains that the society had judged him justly according to its standards of right and wrong. He therefore saw no reason of running away from his government. By the fact that he had accepted himself and was willing to remain as a member of Athenian society, he felt that he had made an agreement with that society to live by its laws. In his argument, corruption and escaping from prison presented a potential mischief and hurt to the overall society by trying to preserve his self-being out of justice system of the government (Benson, 1992). In this aspect, he wanted to remain as a good citizen, therefore, the idea of escaping to exile seemed dishonorable to him and therefore he could not abide to it.

In his other opinion, he feels proud of the kind of life he had led. In his part, He had accomplished his social responsibility for all of his life. Yet the same society had judge him unjustly. To Socrates, two wrongs do not make a right. Society had wronged by judging him unjustly, therefore, did not have to commit a counter-offence by escaping from prison.

In Platos apology, the defendant (Socrates) has been accused of corrupting the youth and searching into things which are under the earth and in heaven and makes worse things to look better. His accusers also sought to silence him arguing that his eloquence was only based on falsehood. The apology portrays the plaintiff (Meletus) to be surprised by the defense presented in court by Socrates. In his defense, Socrates argues that he is nothing but a great truth speaker who is being prejudiced for the same. He argues that his eloquence is no different form that of his accusers only that his accusers who hardly speak the truth.

In defense of his accusation that he is corrupting the youth, Socrates argues that since childhood his accusers had been on the frontline taking possession of the minds of the Athenian people and spreading falsehood which they now accuse Socrates of. In the court, Socrates dares Meletus to cite a single thing which he has for the youth but he only remains silent. According to Socrates, the silence is a disgrace and an indication that Meletus have no interest in the matter. Contradiction arises when Socrates answers that the good do good to their neighbors and the evil do evil to them. In his defense, he says that if at all he is corrupting the youth then it is unintentional and the law has no provision for the unintentional offences.

The other contradiction is evident where Socrates is accused of being an atheist rather than a leader. In his defense, he makes the judges to believe that Meletus believes that, the sun is stone and the moon is the earth. He puts Meletus in a fix where he says that Meletus has a bad opinion of the judges and he fancies them as illiterate to the degree that they will not recognize that he is accusing Anaxagoras. In his argument, Socrates says he believes in demigods who are the sons of gods. He sees no basis on the accusation when he cites that it is not possible to confirm that mules exist but horses and asses dont.

Finally, through his courage and persistence, Socrates, demonstrates the difference between an accused man and one who is already condemned.

Philip A. Mackowiak in his book, Post Mortem Solving Historys Great Medical Mysteries, has discussed at great length the mysterious deaths of the past and how with the help of todays science we can solve those mysteries which in other words is retrospective diagnosis any illness of a historical figure identified after death using recent methodologies. The author discusses at length twelve famous people, their historical setting and background, disease symptoms, myths, probable causes and syndromes associated with death and arriving at the best fit. The book serves to comprehend a vast knowledge of medical terms and is written in a simple yet engrossing way that a person not related to the field of medicine may appreciate it fully.

Post Mortem
Dr. Philip A. Mackowiak is a distinguished professor of medicine. For a span of fourteen years, Mackowiak has presented challenging historical medical mysteries in form of case studies in front of an awed audience in Baltimore. This book contains twelve such case studies presented in those Clinicopathological Conferences (Baltimore). As the name suggests, the book is really a thorough evaluation of each historical figure and the inexplicable deaths which ensued them, some lost in time and some left in the middle of the process of being solved. Science in all its forms has continued to amaze humans, providing reasons well aligned with the brain to make believe, explained and unexplained phenomenas in this universe. In Philip A. Mackowiaks book, Post Mortem Solving Historys Great Medical Mysteries, there are such evaluations and assessments of the past aligned with what we have learned today with the advancement of medicine and genetic study, that they unravel mysteries which have boggled minds and are yet to be resolved. The deaths and the mysterious ailments that would have caused them, of historic figures (who of course intrigue us the most), and an analysis following those mysteries, Mackowiak has attempted to satisfy our curiosity giving a detailed and in depth analysis of what might have been. The book ultimately serves to guide us to at least consider, if not believe, and link other cases as a challenge to the past and present unidentified ailments. The concept of retrospective diagnosis is brought into light which is itself the application of modern methods, processes and techniques in order to recognize or resolve an unidentifiable case of disease or ailment of a historical figure after hisher death. The symptoms of the patient which are recorded as a matter of safe keeping of historical interests are focused and matched against a variety of present known diseases where the best match is approved of. Mackowiak in this book applies the same notion and extends our knowledge to match the most basic question  are those same diseases a bigger threat to us today than they had been in the past and, if so, what better options are there The book links all the evidences available to us and talks on the basis of pure fact and logic.

Mackowiaks Insights Analysis and Review
Post mortem has twelve chapters in all, each dedicated to a separate controversial famous historical figure who contributed to the past, leaving their prints on the sands of time mortals vanishing, while their origin and life events can be traced, their deaths have become a mystery which to the great dismay of historians have yet to be accounted for. Such is the human nature if something is defined by a beginning then it has to have an ending and this is why we are not just satisfied with the words as in the book
The cause of Alexanders death remains a mystery even today, after over two millennia of scrutiny and speculation.

There has to be an answer and as Mackowiak points out  there are many. He has discussed twelve people namely Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, Greek statesman and General Pericles, Alexander the Great, King Herod, Beethoven, Mozart, Florence Nightingale, Booker T. Washington, Joan of Arc, Christopher Columbus, the Roman Emperor Claudius, and Edgar Allan Poe. Each chapter starts in an intriguing way designating the famous figure as a patient  a case under study, laying out hisher background and worth in history, and then disclosing the identity. The title of each chapter has been thoughtfully kept, hinting about its case like, The Human Praying Mantis as Akhenatens appearance resembled one. There are recorded accounts, heard details or painted representations, some very accurate and some eroded away or misplaced, these evidences are the only basis of the research carried out in the quest to solve the mysterious deaths of the named above. He has also stated what the most famous and influential physicians back then had concluded of the possible ailment and what sort of treatment had been carried out for 3500 years that this book covers. He has sometimes confirmed their diagnosis, taken help from it and further rejected some ideas which the modern science has found to be different from the ones in ancient times. Author starts with the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten from the 14th century BCE who ruled Egypt for the next seventeen years, turning away from the ways of his ancestors and establishing the sun-disc god. Akhenaten is pictured to be rather ugly with a serpentine neck, elongated head, large ears, pot belly and spider shaped feet and hands. There is a debate starting from a variety of syndromes from Frhlich syndrome to Marfan syndrome and Schistosomal cirrhosis. He pointed out the most suitable answer to be Klinefelter syndrome  genetic disorder. Next is Athens in 490 BCE and its General  Pericles. Known to be one of the most significant cases linked to epidemics calling it a holocaust because of the number of lives it claimed, its diagnosis is evaluated from the work of Thucydides and Hippocrates. The epidemic still remained undiagnosed two millennia later to which the author attributes certain causes. Debate ensued from typhus, pneumonia, influenza, measles, scurvy, bubonic plague and anthrax. The epidemic was concluded to be outbreak of smallpox also saying that Thucydides record might have been biased when he was affected by the disease.

And so the other figures, their histories, their medical records and contemporary physicians treatments, roll out systematically in front of us where the author debates and argues and links and then again argues about what possibly is or might have been. Alexander the Great is identified with the first case of typhoid fever ever against which, some believed, including himself, that he was poisoned. The Jewish Roman Client Kind of Israel, King Herod is diagnosed with a gangrenous penis and worm-afflicted death. Emperor Claudius of Rome was concluded to have movement complexities as well as personality ones leading to Tourette syndrome. Christopher Columbuss case of reactive arthritis is attributed to be caught from an infected parrot by the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci after his return from the famous sea voyage to Portugal. Presence of a DNA test would have confirmed a different birth place even for Columbus as Mackowiak believes but sadly the distant past doesnt offer us that authority. Joan of Arc, a brave rebel, is questioned on her sanity during her presence in the heresy trial. Was she mentally ill Evidently Mackowiak takes us through a convincing journey of diagnosis of the patients acts of mind. The author talks about Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, the famous composer who died mysteriously at the age of 35 years, reportedly the summit of his fame. He is said by some to have died of rheumatic fever while others suggest influenza and mercury or arsenic poisoning.

Author concludes that he died due to a case of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, nephritic syndrome based on the patients symptoms of intolerable body scent and edema (collection of fluid under skin as a result of uncontrolled homeostasis). Along with Mozart, Ludwig van Beethovens long illness and controversial death is debated about. Again there might be several cases. Lead poisoning or liver cirrhosis because of huge amount of alcohol consumption is believed upon as indicated by his autopsy but what Mackowiak pursues is syphilis. Edgar Allan Poe is focused, who was a great American writer and poet of the Romantic Movement. His death remains a mystery till today which Mackowiak tries to resolve convincing us that his repetitive spells of delirium tremens occurred due to excessive intake of alcohol. Delirium tremens is known as the withdrawal symptom of addiction to alcohol. But there have been many other theories including rabies, meningeal inflammation and epilepsy. Florence Nightingale, the leading figure in the history of nursing, is identified as the Lady with the Lamp for her constant tending to soldiers at night during her service in the Crimean war. From the period of 1857, Florence was confined to bed for more than thirty years of her life. The mysterious question is why The diagnosis lead Mackowiak to explain that it was probably due to her contraction of brucellosis which would have been due to her consumption of goat raw milk and meat goods during her service in war. Further in her life the author suggests her illness to be post-traumatic stress disorder along with bipolar disorder. War, a depressive time might also have been the cause for it.

Philip A. Mackowiak has done a fascinating and marvelous work. He has not left out any aspects ever recorded in history and calculated against them his own arguments based upon profound knowledge, concise and clear. They satisfy the reader to the fullest. Some of the records are missing while others been documented right down to their minute details the deaths still remain a mystery but one that can be pondered upon now. The experts have done their best in identifying what has us in doubt for centuries. The most important aspect, apart from dissemination of very interesting information, of this book is that the historical figures serve as classical case studies to follow up and study upon. Many questions arise from this work like whys and hows of what these historical figures did as they did and how are their deaths significantly related to their life events. Also at what, did physicians, at that time, erred in their treatment and why What could they have done that would have saved their patients There are footnotes and references at the end of each chapter which I strongly recommend each reader to further refer as they are excellent reads. This book is bound to hold captive its readers figure by figure and is a must guide for medical students.

This research is aimed at examining the logic and habits of pharmaceutical companies in search of its benefits and principle rules to direct university industry partnerships that portray the public interests. This study involves various participants. Researchers are the principle participants in the study. This study also involves human subjects who happen to be institutionalized individuals. The drug being tested is phelpxytine decanoate manufactured by the GHI pharmaceutical company. St X University is the academic institution where the research will take place. The GHI Company has already funded the university to carry out the research and the researchers have presented ethics application to St X University Research Ethics Board for approval.

Research Ethics Board Debate
The REB should not approve the study. The relationship between St X University and GHI pharmaceutical industry should be such that, the university provides a check on the hasty interests of the industry. Though Universities have been playing a major role in the creation of new products for pharmaceutical companies, this study is not ethical. Company funded research are more likely to support the therapy than those funded by a private group. Data is also likely to be falsified. Questions as well as the study may be designed in such a way that the probability of getting positive results is increased.

Rules should be put in place to govern the pharmaceutical industries-university relationship. The responsibility of all research should be placed in the hands of the association of universities and colleges. Health research should be taken as a subset of all research with the university being the institution of record rather than an affiliate. Health sciences should not be allowed to develop ethical standards in segregation. St X Universities should set up rules that do not allow it to bend its responsibility to control practices in its well financially supported peripheries. St X Universities should not be allowed to defend its interest with consistent complexity and dynamism. It is for the best interest of the public if a committee was set up to oversee all the research that involves human subjects (Lewis, Baird, Evans, et al, (2001).

All rules should be designed in such a way that they protect the intellectual integrity of not only St X universities, but also all other universities. If these rules culminate to positive effects, the industry habits would improve enlightened companies would take up moral policies that may in time eliminate the suspicion and distrust that current antagonism have without doubt produced.

To minimize cases of bias during research of this drug, a double blind trial should be employed. In double blind trials, neither the researcher nor the subject knows who is on control and who is receiving the real treatment. Double blind trials are the gold standards for medical studies. They eliminate bias on the part of the researchers and the subjects. Use of double blind trials is very important in research as it culminates to higher principles of scientific strictness. It also eliminates influence of the bias as well as unintentional physical signs on the outcome. The key that identifies the group to which subjects are assigned to should be given to a third party and not to the researchers, the university or the GHI pharmaceutical company. Double blind method would be very helpful in our case because there are chances that the results of the research may be tampered with. Subjects in the study should be numbered and assigned randomly to either the experiment group or the control group and then given drugs marked with matching random numbers (Thurnell-Read, 2007).

It would be unethical to withhold the drug to the control group if the drug is realized to be effective. It would also be unethical to continue with the research if the side effects of the drug are so severe that the researchers and the subjects predict the side of the experiment they were assigned to.

It is not in line with the ethical standards for the GHI Company to give funds to St X University. As per the moral standards, all research funds are supposed to be given to the Association of Universities and Colleges rather than to the University directly. The pharmaceutical company should also not give funds directly to the researchers. If it were to do so, it would manipulate the researchers forcing them to develop results that only favor their financial gains. Chances would also be high that the pharmaceutical company would give incentives to the researchers in order to make sure that they only come up with results in favor of the drug (Smith, 1992).

As noted by Smith (1992), scientists and researchers are charged with the responsibility of ensuring the ethical and scientific validity of all research they conduct. Researchers and scientists in academic institutions work under the guidance of the research ethical board which assists by providing them with guidelines and policies to be followed during the experiments. Scientists have specialized, fiduciary, and moral interests in the accountable performance of research. All scientists are under large scientific bodies which deal with their financial issues. Funds are not given directly to the researchers and therefore they cannot be manipulated by the organizations that fund them.

Scientists however, cannot be assumed to be a hundred percent free of bias. If scientists put their focus in financial interest, they are more likely to produce biased results. Non-financial interests of scientists could also compromise the accountable conducts of the study.

It is ethically unacceptable for GHI pharmaceutical industry to give funds directly to the research team. This would provide a base for manipulation of the research team. They would be forced to declare their results positive though they may be negative. GHI pharmaceutical industry would also control the release of results to the public. The GHI pharmaceutical industry would only release results that favor its financial gains.

The key threat to the scientific transparency currently is the corporate money and tricks directed towards co-opting the good name of studies for the pursuit of profit. Pharmaceutical scandals whereby companies withhold all data that does not favor their products and conceal financial interests of the drug have revealed this.

The GHI pharmaceutical company does not have the mandate of restricting the publication of the results of the drug whether they are positive or negative. Even if the drug proves ineffective, the results should be published for the interest of the public. Researchers should be free from any coercion either from St X University or the GHI Company to produce results that only proves the drug to be effective. The research team should be free to make publication of the outcome whether the drug is affective or ineffective.

The main purpose of ethical principles as illustrated by Lewis, Baird, Evans, et al, (2001) is to direct and induce considerate actions founded on principles. These ethics have been widely utilized in various research disciplines. They put across general standards, ideals and objectives of the research society. One of the ethical issues is the reverence for human dignity. Diverse interests of a person ranging from bodily to psychological to cultural honor should be safeguarded. The principle of respect for human dignity forms the foundations of the moral obligation in study.

Respect for free will and informed consent is the other ethical consideration in research. A person is commonly assumed to have the capability and right to make free as well as informed decisions. Exercise of individuals consent should be respected in the process of research.

All vulnerable individuals are supposed to be respected. Vulnerable individuals are people who have reduced competence and ability to make decisions. Among the vulnerable group of people who should be protected from exploitation and abuse on the foundation of human dignity, fairness and unity are children and institutionalized people. Ethical obligations to vulnerable groups require that special measures for safeguarding their interests be put in place.

Privacy and confidentiality of a person are to be respected. Standards of privacy as stated by the Canadian institute of health research (2005) should be applied for the control and dissemination of persons information. Justice and inclusiveness should also be upheld. Justice ensures that proper research methods are utilized during research and that burdens of research are not subjected to the vulnerable group alone. Ethical principles require for balancing of benefits and harms of the study. A harmsbenefits analysis should be conducted to make sure that harms do not outweigh benefits.

Ethical principles require that human beings should not be subjected to unnecessary dangers of harm. As per ethical principles researches should involve the smallest number of human subjects possible. Beneficence is the other ethical principle related to the benefits as well as harms of study.  Moral ethics impose a duty on research to benefit others as well as increase the total number of benefits. Subjects used in research play a very big part to the advancement and guarantee of research in advancing the condition of human being. Subjects collaborate with researchers as participants in the development of a research project. Subjects should therefore not be taken as objects rather their interests should be core to the research. It is not always that subjects and the researchers will see the benefits and the harms of a research in a similar manner. Individual subjects may respond in different ways though they are in the same study. The research ethical board must do all it can to understand the views of the research (Canadian institute of health research, 2005).

St X University as well as other Universities is supposed to look for the truth. GHI and other Pharmaceutical companies on the other hand have a responsibility of making money for their stakeholders. If a pharmaceutical company fails to make money for its stakeholders, it is thrown out of business. A university that does not provide the society with truth on the other hand losses credibility as well as its position. At times, institutional essentials are bound to disagree. If any of the institution abandons its principle mission, it finally fails. Research can serve the interest of the public or be subverted to serve the interest of the company. Subverting the purpose of research corrupts the integrity of researchers as well as the research institutions.

According to Lewis, Baird, Evans, et al. (2001), some relationship between the universities and the industries are unified by an unbiased pursuit of innovation others are unholy associations in which researchers as well as the university becomes helpers of the industry. Such an association places the interests of the industry well above those of the University and the society. Major difference in revelation requirements, inadequate safeguard of the right to publish in a timely fashion, and researchers having monetary interests in the company potentially affected by the results of their research are some of the evidences that illustrate how some associations may be unholy. The main aim of these unholy associations is the publication of positive outcomes of trails of new medicines only. Publications may also be made showing that the new drug is superior to other competitor drugs in the market. As a result, the sales of the company may be increased. Negative outcomes develop unhappy industry partners. It is the mandate of St X University as well as other Universities to safeguard their own culture and orientation. This however, has not been achieved. Money has been put into the scene leading to inadequate oversight as well as insufficient standardization of rules to settle disputes. Universities status is tarnished production of drug therapies that cannot help, and increase in the cost of drugs, emerge as a result.

When the interest of the public and the private sector conflict, some companies have been shown to protect the interests of their shareholders fiercely. If it develops a drug that acts the same way as another drug in the market, it will tend to market that drug at a very high cost in order to get back its expenses. Pharmaceutical companies in such cases are forced to extensively persuade physicians, pharmacists, as well as the public that its drug is actually the best. In addition to threats and lawsuits, results of therapeutic effects of a certain drug are inclined towards the positive results. Funding done by the pharmaceutical company will lead to creation of incentives to support the positive and repress the negative. The pharmaceutical company may either control the publication of the results or hold back the negative results. The truth is incompletely revealed and therefore compromised when pharmaceutical industries control publication of the outcome. As a result if the researchers, laboratories as well as career prospects depend on the renewed industry financial support of their interests may start to go in line with those of their paymasters (Lewis, Baird, Evans, et al., 2001).

The right of the university to reveal the research findings, whether negative or positive, immediately after clinical trials and make the results public freely should be preserved. Guidelines should be laid down and followed to determine if a proposed industry-university project is of adequate academic novelty and imperative to meet the criteria of being an academic activity. Should the project not succeed, it should be regarded as a consulting contract and therefore priced and managed as such. All universityindustry agreements as well as contracts should be filed with the supervision body. All clinical trials should also be registered.  A debriefing should be written and signed by all parties at the end of every university-industry agreement. This debriefing should be filed by the supervision body as well as a hearing process to settle disputes. A rating system should be put in place to evaluate the scientific reliability, adherence of contracts as well as obligation to academic liberty, level of intrusion in the conduct of study and suitability of monetary arrangements. Surtax levied on all university-industry contracts should be used to establish a central office as well as its supervision actions and cater for the cost of defending researchers against harassment by industries. An ombudsperson should be appointed to whom all concerns about the joint venture will be referred to by the researchers and the industry. All agencies funding health studies are required to take part in and support the developed set of rules founded on these common values and arrangements (Lewis, Baird, Evans, et al., 2001).

Resolutions
Disputes are bound to arise during development of new drugs. These disputes may involve complex decisions that are commercially and scientifically important. Measures should be put in place so as to encourage open and quick discussion of such disputes leading to their resolution.

Safeguards
Only a limited number of authorized people should have access to the records kept during the process of research. This greatly helps in reducing chances of tampering with the results of the study. The researchers should record any information acquired from the subjects during the process for research as soon as possible. The research ethical board of St X University should ensure that all the research guidelines are implemented and followed to the latter.

According to Sayer, knowledge in social science is concerned with reification of actions taken by human beings in the society. The social aspect of human beings includes culture, business, communication, economics, political science, linguistics and philosophy. These areas are subject to understanding social phenomena in relation to the society that depends on the nature of social phenomena. This requires critical thinking and knowledge in order to analyze the subject matter of social science. To understand clearly the critical objective of social phenomena, it is important to examine critically the subject matter of social science by its own. In this research, conclusions are derived on the basis of explanations in relation to social phenomena that considered to be important.

The improvement of any research, especially, in project management depends entirely on alternative social changes, reconstruction and normative issues. The relationship between these aspects of social changes can lead to both positive and negative effects. To succeed in project management that is based on social science, the researcher must be in a position to defend arguments against false beliefs. Working in relation to the human needs is one major way of achieving good results. Social science criticism involves social responsibilities that sometimes fail to address normative questions. Critical social science therefore needs to be addressed and acknowledged through the proper normative disclosure.

Critical realism concerning any matter that relates to social science is very important as it is the means through which different research projects are achieved. According to Roy Bhaskar a British philosopher, critical realism in the philosophy of social science is an aspect that helps to do away with postmodern challenges. The aim of critical realism is to show the significant objective of carrying out a critical project. Critical realism is socially situated rather than socially determined. This means that in social science, critical realism maintains the objective criticism that helps to promote change in social science. The ultimate importance of the social change aids in the development of human freedom.

Roy Bhaskar came up with the philosophy of science known as transcendental realism and critical naturalism. Other authors combined these two critiques where they consequently formed critical realism. Transcendental realism shows that there are some elements of social science that must be fulfilled. The objective of the investigation must be real, easy to manipulate and should obviously apply internal mechanisms that should be put in place to achieve certain outcome. A research project is like an experiment that is done through the application of the mentioned sentiments. The major implication of critical realism in social science is to understand it as an on-going process. There are certain changes that need to be done in order to understand the objective of the research.

Social science includes the common sense in order to understand the subject matter of a given research. Therefore, there is a common relationship between critical realism and social science. The relationship is used as means to understand consciousness of evaluating what has not been examined. Failing to use critical realism in social science leads to poor evaluations thus inadequacies exists in research. Another major aspect is social phenomena that go hand in hand with the evaluation and criticism of the understanding of societies in regard to social science. For instance, to make an evaluation on economic recession, it is important to critically evaluate formal and informal theories that give information on the performance of politicians, individuals and perhaps institutions. Social science is the backbone of every research project because critical understanding of the society gives adequate information. Society is the major source of information because anything that happens in the modern society is the reflection of activities carried on by the society members. To achieve good results, there is a need to be objective, critical and observe common basics for understanding.

The philosophical observation of social science can be compared with an experiment that is done practically to achieve certain outcome. Knowledge and social science are two common elements that go hand in hand to show the critical realism about reality. The most important  issue  in philosophy is to address the matter of how  reality should  be  taken to make  the  existence  of  social science  real. This  is  the argument of  Roy Bhasker and  it  is a  true  reflection of  what  happens  in the society. Researchers have to apply a framework that provides guidelines so as to reflect the theoretical practice of the human intervention in reality. However, from the perspective of critical realism the society is that it is structured, stratified and elusive and these three elements justify the importance of scientific research and theory. Roy Bhasker developed three basic domains of reality   from realist theory of science that is empirical, actual and real.

The  empirical aspect  of reality consists of life experiences that shape  the human lifestyle, actual domain  consists  of events  that  might be or  may  not  be  experienced in life and  the  real domain consists  of  activities  that may  be experienced or fail to be  experienced in both actual and  empirical domain. Knowledge is very important in the social aspect of the human life, because it is used to deal with reality. This clearly leads to the explanation of how it is impossible to remove reality without making an object cease. Critical realism is a social science element that differentiates radical from empiricist concepts. It  is  an explanation of  why and  what makes  events  happen as they  occur in the  real life  of  human beings. This is the guiding principle of philosophy as a reflection of social science. There are some observations made in real life situations that sustain critical realism.

The first observation is that causal powers are deeply rooted to their inner structure that cannot be easily observed. This requires the internal power and capacity so as to show how realism is the basic mechanism that leads to the generation of the output. The second observation is that there must exist external conditions that trigger generative mechanisms. These external conditions help to differentiate between the objective mechanisms of generation and the actual effects of realism. The third observation is to understand casualty in relation to the tendencies that characterize the objective structure. In order  to  be  real, an individual needs not  to understand  empirical events because  some  external conditions  may  not  exist. In addition, the external factors  should  not  always  be  considered as  the  sole  cause  of  generative mechanism.

 As compared to the social science research, IT governance involves a system in which all business stakeholders such as internal customers, the board of directors, the heads of departments have the capacity to express their view when it comes to the organizational decision making process. This is an important aspect of  social science that incorporates all stakeholders in the decision making process, so that nobody will be blamed incase a misfortune occurs. The users are exposed to an internal system that advocates for views of every individual who has the capacity to make decision. Governance has been the major problem for many business entities and this has forced business leaders to incur a lot of finance trying to improve it. The good business governance is the success of all organization entities while the bad governance leads to an ineffective way of the business administration processes.

The causal powers that constitute social structures allow human beings to act in the way they act in real life. Individuals  act in a  manner  to  suggest  both closed and  open systems that are  based  on structural powers and  the knowledge  of  human beings. A closed system works without the support of other generative mechanisms to achieve the desired outcome of the researcher. This is a reflection of the natural social science events that a researcher considers to isolate generative mechanisms from other behaviors. On the other hand, an open system is a reflection of reality in social science that interconnects various generative mechanisms such as culture, religion, race, social life and technology. These generative mechanisms work independently, thus they counteract the causal tendencies of each other. The  society, in which individuals live,  is  a  social science phenomena  that  is  composed  of  different  strata, such as  social, biological and psychological. These  strata  are  relatively  independent  from each other  and constitute the open  system of  generative  mechanism that does  not  necessarily lead to causal effects.

The different types of inferences used to explain the social phenomena differentiate the  realist from other  researchers. The research topic of this paper, IT auditing and governance, is a reflection of the generative mechanism. This  observation is true  because  there  are particular  observable  changes associated  with  IT auditing and  governance as in the  case of  social phenomena. Realist researchers emphasize on observable events and non observable structures that are critical in IT auditing and governance. An IT auditor works in close range with the provisions of generative mechanisms and this is a reflection on the importance of research objective. The use of knowledge too is a reflection on how social science must be critical on its object.  When an IT auditor has no knowledge of how to apply the information technology governance, the research on particular area may be of no importance.

Explanation is another important concept of critical realism, which considers the aims of social science that is to explain social conditions in a particular phenomenon. IT auditing and governance is a reflection of causal powers that are found in unobservable structures. The auditor carries out his or her duties independently and this leads to the evaluation and assessment of various weak areas in the social organization. There are six stages that are connected to the unobservable inner structure of a researcher. The six stages include the following the description, analytical resolution, theoretical redescription, reintroduction, comparison and contextualization. These stages reflect the effects of IT auditing and governance in regard to the generative mechanism that results in concrete situations.

Like all facets of social sciences, ineffective governance creates problems that complicate the process of insurance, blown budgets, poor investments and the failure of IT applications in other sectors. The problem of ineffective governance results in the frustration of the organizational activities and the paralysis of transactions. Governance also promotes the creation of business transactions that lead to the expansion of business and thus to high profits. Governance has led to the development of business and IT that results in the promotion of strategic vision for many organizations. Governance has also led to the delivery of important functions that support good business plans hence the organization moves forward.  The major role of governance in business is to ensure that entities achieve the value in IT thus reducing risks related to the information technology projects.

The role of the IT audit is associated with business models that constantly keep on changing due to the development of information technologies. The change in the way business is carried out should be accompanied with the way auditors resort to in carrying out their duties. Andrew Sayer argues that social science is only critical about its change and this reflects how IT audit and governance are related. During the past years, there has been the technological evolution accompanied by new business models such as outsourcing, decentralization and down sizing. These changes have taken auditing profession to another level that embraces the culture of the information technology. Business transactions are no more local due to the development of the internet that is integrated into business to provide a good environment for business transactions.

The audit framework leads to the generative mechanism that helps individuals to evaluate on their performance in various aspects of social life. The role of information technology auditing therefore has seen many business entities achieve their goals which is the major objective of any social science research.

Through the provision of a good framework, IT auditors work more efficiently than ever before producing good results. The framework provides for planning, organization, acquisition, delivery, implementation, support and monitoring. These are the common governance models that are aligned with business strategies to come up with good performance. The performance of auditors and the cooperation of business leaders enhance the evaluation of governance models that makes it easy to establish weak areas in the organization. The establishment of weak areas in the management of the organization is the main objective of auditing task. It is important in the sense that measures are put in place to seal these loopholes that are used fro sole benefit of the management.

There are certain generative mechanism models that are used with other business strategies resulting in a good outcome. The first model is planning and organization that incorporate the efforts of the management and the board of directors. Business leaders have the capacity to develop strategies that ensure businesses to achieve their objectives through putting in place a technological infrastructure. The service of IT auditors is very necessary when it comes to the implementation of the best policies to be used, since they are thus responsible for any auditing problem that arises. The role of the auditor is to evaluate and check whether the delivery of services in the business entity is in line with business objectives. He or she is concerned with the quality management that involves the development of the strategic planning. The strategic plan should be in line with the entities mission and the vision statement which must guide the auditor. In addition, it should align with identification of various work plans, various measurement policies to be adopted and the recognition of specific projects. The aim of the IT auditor in this case is to come up with strategic IT plan, determination of technological direction, communicate the aims and directions of management, ensure there is strict compliance with external requirements, assess risks and manage quality.

The second governance model is the acquisition and the implementation that helps the auditor to realize good business strategies and tactics. The solution to IT related problems needs to be acquired, developed and identified. The auditors role is to asses the best process for developing and acquiring good models. The support in terms of control in regard to the acquisition and maintenance of good application software should be provided. The role of the IT auditor in the implementation and maintenance includes the identification of good automated solutions, acquisition and maintenance of the application software, evaluation of development  and maintenance procedures, support management changes, evaluation of accredit systems that have been  installed and evaluating  the acquired technology infrastructure.

The third governance model is delivery and support that is concerned with the IT service delivery. Activities involved in this model include training, support and security. The role of auditor in this particular model is to assess, evaluate and to ensure strong security of systems is maintained. The process and role of auditor in this case includes
Evaluation or assessment of mangers service level
Management of third party services
Manage the performance and capacity of business leaders
Ensuring that there is continuous service evaluation
Evaluate systems security through support strategies
Identification of education and training  costs through evaluation methods
Provide assistance to customers through evaluation of advise techniques
Management of data, facilities, operations, problems and incidents.

The fourth governance model that is used with other business strategies in IT auditing is monitoring. All business operations need a much supervision and assessment through monitoring. The assessment is done to ensure that business entity complies with particular control requirements so as to achieve business objectives. The auditor in this case is responsible for providing the full support of business activities. The IT auditor is concerned with performance of various measurement policies that were established through strategic plans. The auditor is supposed to compare the established parameters with achievement factors that have been set. In addition, the auditor should compare success factors against outcomes that are related to the stakeholders expectations. This domain requires the auditor to monitor certain processes, provide independent audit, access internal control adequacy and support independent assurance assessment. The role of the auditor is to build a strong IT governance business environment that is aligned with the business objectives and that satisfies the stakeholders needs.

The role of the project management in any research paper or business entity is to review the steps involved in planning, controlling and organizing. It is a way of building up a good schedule that helps to measure the success or failure of business entity. Project management evaluates policies that help to execute the planning process, the estimation of project costs, builds strong team work, establishes stages of risk management and helps in management of project interface. The critical application of research procedures of IT auditing and governance in project management has led to achievement of business objectives. This is a clear prove that social science is critical in its object and understanding of social phenomena is very crucial in any research.

Epistemology is a subject which has dominated many philosophers debates. It is in such endeavors that the issue of Islamic epistemology comes into play and its existence thus questioned and confirmed. Indeed, there is a distinct difference between Islamic epistemology and western epistemology. While westerners have perceived knowledge to include both divine and human information, Islam has seen knowledge to be more than that. Otherwise referred to as ilm, knowledge in Islam is of a theoretical nature, highly active and it involves various concepts of education. Knowledge has been a significant and critical element as a determinant of the Muslim civilization and all it encompasses. Islamic traditions have continued to insist on all Muslims acquisition of knowledge and the use of that knowledge in their daily life activities. As a consequence of this, it is evident that all levels of Muslim life are influenced by the implications of the concept of knowledge. In addition, a comparison with other religions and ideologies places Islam at the highest level of insistence on the fundamental importance of knowledge. It is in this light that this paper seeks to understand the epistemology and concept of knowledge in Islam.

In a bid to expound on the concepts of knowledge the paper will consider the Islamic meaning, theory, nature and sources of knowledge. Knowledge within the Islamic constraints has also had an influence on many facets of philosophy. Therefore, the issues of logical intellect and philosophy of knowledge will be discussed.

Epistemology and the Islamic Concept of Knowledge
Drawing from Islamic philosophers, the hadith and the Quran knowledge has become a remarkable force in the lives of Muslims. However, there are Islamic philosophers who differ with the common understanding of Islamic Knowledge. These philosophers provide a basis of what the Islamic concept of knowledge does not encompass. The meaning of knowledge in Islam distances itself from most peoples conception of knowledge. Most individuals think of knowledge as those ideas, cultures, information, beliefs, values and facts they have gained from their ancestry. Moreover, these conceptions extend to the teachings and other ideals they have come across in their lives. Regardless of the fact that all these items may constitute knowledge it is crucial to focus on the true entity of knowledge. Islamic epistemology details that Muslims have to derive their own meanings of knowledge as per their own ideals and beliefs.

In Islam, Allah is known as the first teacher who imparts knowledge to all Muslims. This gives the Quran precedence in dictating teachings and ways of life to the Muslims. Looking at knowledge from this perspective establishes ilm to be of three types (Akhtar, 2010). For one, knowledge is seen as undeniable signs of God. Secondly, there are the traditions which were set by past prophets. Lastly, knowledge entails mere obligations. These conceptions create an overall view of Islamic knowledge implying that it constitutes of many fields like law, theology, ethics, science and politics among others. The Quran has gone to great lengths in defining knowledge and in creating an analysis of what it encompasses. Knowledge is thus seen as truth dictated by Allah himself. His nature expels knowledge to all of his creation and as a consequence, mankind acquires it through revelations, experiences and reasoning. Allah has always been exalted in Islam which has in turn authenticated the concept of knowledge as truth. While as human beings Muslims may know and relate to fellow human beings they cannot do so with Allah. This differentiation in nature becomes a vital component in the definition of knowledge.

Human happiness is an aspect which carries great weight and importance amongst Muslim philosophers. In their concerns for its attainment, they perceive knowledge as the only way to doing so. In essence, Knowledge bore crucial importance in the study of epistemology. The nature of knowledge in Islam has seen philosophers conceptualize it as the seizing of non objects, their nature and reality of things (Inati, 1998). These things may be considered as either materialistic or not. While one may automatically acknowledge the existence of such material things, it is difficult to do the same for the immaterial. The pure forms which emanate from individuals distancing themselves from material things are what act as the stronghold of knowledge. As a result, objects ensue from the forms in the mind which are then used as tools of judgment. Judgment on the other hand is a construct of conception but it cannot be considered as either a fact or falsity. Islamic philosophy thus entails the known and unknown conceptions. In order to maximize ones knowledge there has to be an increment of the known objects and a decline of the unknown objects. This further brings to light other forms of knowledge envisioned by Muslim philosophers. Information is regarded as part of the known in contrast with ignorance which is rather the unknown. Other types of knowledge are the natural laws and knowledge acquired through guesswork. These forms of knowledge are obligatory with respect to various componential levels. Information and natural laws are quite crucial while knowledge by conjecture may not be a necessity in all respects of Islamic epistemology.

The above view depicts that knowledge is a reflection of the uniqueness, simplistic and universal nature of the human mind. Islamic philosophers draw their theories of knowledge from these ideas. As asserted in Yazdi, 1992, (p. 13) Avicenna argued that even when intellect is a separate entity it still allows all types of human knowledge to gradually transcend from potentiality to actuality. Furthermore, the reduction of the unknown introduces a theory which stresses that ignorance is ridden off when individuals are willing to assent to the levels of the known forms. As such it is evident that only though explanations and proof of these explanations can knowledge be acquired. It is not easy to authenticate the validity of this claim as it can either be false or true. However through logic, determining this validity can become plausible. Logic is a critical element of knowledge whose entity cannot be subject to anyones scrutiny or change other than Gods. Allocating logic such a role elevates it to a form of power in which logic functions as a disclosure of the true nature of things. Following this, logic unravels human knowledge which is basically what humankind needs to be happy. In spite of this, rational thinking is not a reliable source of knowledge. Human intellect has its limitations and thus requires other sources of knowledge in order to authenticate what is acquired through rationalism. This is where revelation comes into play otherwise the overreliance on rational thinking may permit the introduction of misconceptions into Islamic philosophy. Any knowledge which is acquired by other means and contradicts the Quran is considered unacceptable.

Another limited source of knowledge is the use of experience. With the provided senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, individuals are able to fathom many experiences during their day to day life.  In addition, the individual is able to shield their object of knowledge from any external influences regardless of them being their values, beliefs and attitudes. They do so by subjecting themselves to rigorous control of their minds and dictating the occurrence of natural laws. This concept of knowledge has been refuted on the grounds of being highly impossible especially when relating to objects of human behavior. This form of objectivity is nullified in the sense that human behaviors cannot be separated from the values, beliefs and attitudes of the individual carrying them out. Due to this, any sort of acquired information is just as distinct as the number of individuals who have acquired it and this makes it difficult to account for its validity. Islamic philosophy thus embraces the universality and also the distinctness in which knowledge is. Gaining knowledge of the world does not mean the possession of mere facts about it but it implies the perception of the world in specific ways which are unique and derived from unique points of view. These views are not subject to the mind only but also to both historical and social contexts. Empiricism even though construed from individuals actions and thoughts cannot be trusted and just like rationalism it needs another source of knowledge to confirm and authenticate it.

Apart from rationalism and experience as sources of knowledge, Islamic epistemology also perceives revelation as a crucial source of knowledge. Shehu (2002) claims that revelation is often dismissed as a source of knowledge. Modern philosophers believe knowledge to emanate from intellect and human senses. Labeled as a mere mythical conception, revelation has in the past instigated conflicts between some religious factions and scientists. Despite such rows, revelation still remains a significant source of knowledge in Islam. Muslims believe in revelation and consider it a crucial aspect of their faith. This explains there extensive reliance on the holy Quran and the Sunnah as the main sources of Islamic knowledge. As Muslims delve into the many ventures which bring them into contact with all kinds of knowledge, they are influenced by this belief. Revelation takes many forms including direct communication with Allah, inspirations and the use of intermediaries as carriers of messages. Such intermediaries may be prophets who are stated in the Quran to have received information in the form of dreams. This mode is however inexistent since the times of Prophet Muhammad. His death marked the end of revelation through prophets. The form of knowledge acquired through revelation is considered to be highly divine and superior to all other sources of knowledge.

The prophetic mode of revelation often constituted an intense norm of interaction with Allah. However in comparison to Islamic concept of knowledge prophetic knowledge is perceived to be acquired in simplistic manner. Prophetic knowledge is impervious to the performance of any actions and the only form of mandatory requirement is the possession of an irrefutable soul which can receive and hold this knowledge. Also, prophetic knowledge initially construes theoretical intellect and then moves on to the realm of imaginations at the final stages of acquisition. On the other hand, philosophical knowledge starts off with conceptualized imagination and subjectivity of the mind to various views and then it moves to highly theoretical intellect. It is therefore true to conclude that philosophical knowledge details the true entity of nature without the influence of any imagined symbols. Both philosophical and prophetic knowledge hold surmountable truth but only differ in forms of acquisition. This is what has often been used by Islamic philosophers to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic knowledge. This was nonetheless impossible as further analysis of the Greek philosophy and its interaction with the views depicted in the Quran indicated different beliefs and doctrines. Regardless of the influence of Greek philosophy in Islam, it sought to obscure the Islamic perception and vision of the embodiment of the holy Quran. Theoretical intellect is also further seen to undergo the stages of potentiality, actuality and acquisition. In view of theoretical intellect being an object of nature, it becomes necessary for it to grasp the essential universal objects as only then can it be permanently acquired (Goodman, 1972). Without the interaction with eternal objects, theoretical intellect disintegrates and ceases to exist.

The shift of human intellect to actuality is seen as the cause of human thought. Davidson illustrates Averroes conception of the actuality of theoretical intellect. This nature of intellect is known to be significantly spiritual surpassing the human soul. As material elements of thought are elevated to actuality there is need for an agent. In order to eventually end up with distinct actual thought, the agent has to be themselves in possession of intelligible thought. In this sense, the active intellect bears effect to images in both the soul and the material intellect. Active intellect thus illuminates material intellect and gains precedence in Islamic philosophy. Epistemology in Islam also views knowledge as light. It is not only synonymous to what is perceived to be Allahs light but also to the sort of light that those who seek knowledge struggle to attain. Ignorance or the lack of knowledge is seen as a form of darkness which is made possible by the presence of doubt found in the human mind. Apart from the Quran, Islamic traditions have always conceived that light is only attainable to those who seek to shift from the unknown to the known. Prophet Mohammad often found himself referring to light and its essentiality in the achievement of Islamic knowledge. Knowledge in Islam is not differentiated from wisdom but it is rather referred to as one entity.  This implies that it is a knowledge which encompasses both the knowledge of an individual self and that of the world. Following past reflections on the ideals of light, Islam became pressured to impart a symbolic reference to light. This saw the utilization of the pen, Quran and the Islamic writings as metaphors depicting this light.

Gnosis in Islamic philosophy is said to the ultimate form of knowledge. As such it trails its existence and permanent authority from the essence of light. The Quran teaches that light is the optimum guide for human kind and it is only derived from Allah. True Islamic insight is thus provided for by the knowledge, guidance and the Quran all which encompass the Islamic faith. Rosenthal (1970, p.158) asserts that light holds great significance in the Quran and as God is reflected to be the provider of knowledge, the process requires the factor of light. If not so, even the Quran would not have remained an important component of Islamic knowledge. This recognition of light in conjunction with both knowledge and wisdom was a concept accepted and adopted by Islam since the ancient times. This theoretical framework of knowledge emanated from Sufism which often emphasized on the interaction of both light and knowledge as the foundation of Islamic mysticism. Other Islamic scholars have either taken a similar approach to this aspect or differed completely. Though in critical awe of the views developed by Sufism Al-Ghazzali came up with a systematic approach to their views. His semantic depiction of light entailed its application to Allah as the ultimate source of all forms of light, the universe as the reactionary result of light which emanates from Allah. Therefore despite the notion that light was optimally synonymous to Allah it also referred to the initial source of light where all other objects derive their light from. As per Al-Ghazzali, epistemology may correspond to the theory of human existence. This claim brings to mind the question of what are the ontological characteristics of the human intelligible universe.

A critical look at these ontological features exhibits the argument developed by Mulla Sadra where his view as a realist derived a unique description of knowledge in Islamic philosophy. Sadra describes knowledge on the basis of various features of ontology the primacy and the stages of being. A study of this ontology unveils a new and unique perspective of the Islamic intellectual traditions. Being according to Sadra is an entity which is devoid of definitions or descriptions. However, their concrete existence can only be detected through empiricism where senses are used as tools of observation. Moreover, what remains unknown to individuals can only become known when they are able to relate it to other known concepts. As human beings this procedure is rather subconsciously followed but it does not surpass the intuitiveness which springs up the familiarity of our being. This concept clearly distinguishes those things which are known to individuals and those which they are able to demonstrate. Izutsu and Mohaghegh (1977, p. 32) indicate that the concept of being is widely known but its depth and reality still remains elusive. Actually the only way of accessing this reality is through illuminative presence. Illuminative presence emphasizes the functions of particularity and spiritual illumination. Human experiences have always been of a particular nature encompassed with unique characteristics. As such it is assumed that all abstractions are meant to distort the uniqueness of all beings. For the conceptualization of knowledge and wisdom it is crucial to establish a link between the awareness of being and spiritual enlightenment.  After formulating the distinction between being and reality a far more familiar distinction to the Islamic philosophy can be carried out. This distinction involves being and essence. These two differ in that with being there is a feasible description while essence has no external existence but only within the mind.

Islamic Epistemology has thus identified knowledge as a mode of being. In an attempt to do so, there is established a need for the presence of knowledge and an ignorant being. Furthermore the fact that knowledge eludes most definitions and that these attempts always culminate to a use of its own conceptions is a similarity shared in the attempt to define being. As such this parallelism between being and knowledge becomes the initial step towards forming a concrete understanding of knowledge as a form of being. In addition, the definition of knowledge as a mode of being is derived from the explanation that any acknowledgement of the existence of a particular thing which is basically a being amounts to acquiring knowledge. Therefore being becomes the basis to which all knowledge and its forms are formulated. The concept of knowing further details the action of grasping and appropriating the intelligible form of the thing you claim to know. From the intelligible world, the intelligible forms are derived and as they unite with human intellect then knowledge is conceived. The intelligible world is considered in Islamic philosophy as the place where forms and reality of all things reside. Hierarchically, this world supersedes the normal world and it thus reflects its ideas and knowledge unto human beings who then acquire knowledge as a consequence. Individual senses are only responsible for the experiencing of various forms but their meanings are only known to us through the intellect and by its interaction in the world of intelligibleness.

A central theme to the concept of Islamic philosophy which encompasses intellectual unity has been known to bring together the subject and object of knowledge. It is from this perspective that knowledge has been understood as representational. In essence knowledge is seen to reflect the relationship between the subject and object of knowledge. The established relationship is a cardinal aspect in the epistemology of Islamic philosophy. This further authenticates Mulla Sadras conceptualization of knowledge. In addition to Sudras emphasis of the unity of the intellectual being and the intellect object, there are other philosophers who have understood knowledge on the single concept of representation. Representation dominates their arguments as the sole significant type of knowledge. This theory of knowledge underpins the epistemological evaluations of ancient philosophy. Knowledge is observed to be the true depiction of the external world within an individuals mind. More so, there exists a link between the mental objects and their images. Therefore, from the external world individuals are able to gather various impressions which are then replicated within the mind. The truth of the acquired knowledge can only be validated through this link where inconsistencies in the mirroring of the external world and mental images account for falsehoods. This theory has a rather debatable assumption which entails the prior existence of the external objects in their interaction with the subject.

Enlightenment is a distinct concept in Islamic epistemology. This concept is based on the systems of belief and science. Originating from the Quran, this concept details the unity of the minds enlightenment with that of the heart. This is done through true belief in both Allah and science. The mind is regarded as irrelevant if it is not guided by the light in its conceptualization of both behaviors and thoughts. Reason in Islam is the unmediated source of knowledge. It comprises of all the logical and rational entities of the human mind. Thus it is meant to be a prerequisite of knowledge. Altwaijri (2010) emphasizes that reason has always been given a high stature in Islam. This has enabled human intellect function effectively in both cultural and scientific fields. As a consequence those barriers and notions put in place in order to jeopardize the freedom of an individuals mind and thus prevent their grasp of knowledge have been eliminated. Islam unlike other forms of epistemology has not been known to impart restrictions for reason. As Muslims interact with Allah they do so without the use of intermediaries but by the guidance of reason. Their quest for knowledge only brings them happiness which is the optimal level of Islamic enlightenment.

Islamic epistemology also constitutes the endeavor to address the place of Gods knowledge within human knowledge and also discovering the role played by those in possession of knowledge. Allah has constantly been attributed with exemplary abilities and characteristic far from the features of power and life bestowed on him. In addition, traditional Islamic philosophy claimed the attainability of knowledge to be subject to the access of divinity or access to the essence of the universe. These features conceptualize God as having distinct knowledge and also being true knowledge.  Thus it is logical to fathom that when human beings attain knowledge they possess a trait attributed to God and that God can become eminent knowledge to human beings. These conceptions have over the years developed numerous philosophical debates entailing the place of Gods knowledge in human knowledge. Some philosophers claim that regardless of the nature of Gods knowledge whether philosophical or mystical it is possible and that human beings can unite with God through many forms including that of knowledge. Those who do not favor this claim argue that human beings due to their limited intellect and existentialism are meant to find ways of intensifying their capabilities. As such they land in the realm of faith where God instills in them the knowledge needed to fully understand the universe. Another view puts the Quran at a pedestal where it gains importance in the revelations of Gods knowledge which is rather vital to the acquisition of true knowledge. Epistemology also assigns roles to those in possession of knowledge. However, these roles are quite distinct and are not governed by any specific guidelines. As such, intellectuals may choose to join politics, religion, law or other sectors. At times where there are disputes on the individual who bares true knowledge it becomes easier to establish this by taking up a leadership role in politics where debates and arguments dominate the essence of knowledge.

Islamic philosophy in its search for those who are entitled to possess knowledge and to venture in search of more knowledge identifies the epistemology of Kalam. However this theory is encountered with the problems of diverse saturated views and the lack of a distinct account of the theory. Regardless of this a critical scrutiny of Kalam provides a significant view of Islamic Knowledge. Kalam exhibits itself as the rational investigation of truth which occurs within theological concepts. Kalam is far from the gnosis and science earlier conceptualized by the Shiites. Thus the Sunni Kalam was formed under different doctrines. These doctrines are initialized by the presence of a form of divine unity. Here, they emulate the foundation of Islamic dogma which identifies Allah as the ultimate spirit where all is grounded.

In their characterization of God, the Sunni regarded him as invisible, unique, timeless, unconditioned and omniscient. While they construed him as a thing they were rush to point out his distinctiveness from other things. Divine justice in Sunni doctrines entails that human beings are responsible for their liberty and freedom. This clearly gave them the role of deriving and formulating knowledge so as to take responsibility of their lives. This concept is not of direct origin from the Sunni but rather a reflection of the Quran. Furthermore, Allahs promise for great rewards to those who seek his presence and the punishment of those who defy his will play a vital role in constraining the freedom of Muslims. This idea of justice in Sunni Kalam also prompts the hunger and desire for knowledge. As a result, the teachings obtained from the Quran guide human beings into intellectual elevation of their heightened abilities. This knowledge of justice, freedom and liberty also formulates a moral imperative amongst Muslims who are required to cultivate and practice moral social behaviors.

Conjecture is not allowed in Islamic philosophy but only when it leads to the authentication of knowledge or in providing certainty. In fact Islams intolerance of skepticism derives an epistemology which ascertains the truth of knowledge as its certainty, its visual component and its intellectual unity of both the subject and object. Even though there is no room for doubt in Islamic philosophy there are some philosophers who have used the element of doubt in formulating new perspectives of intellectual activity. Al- Ghazzali has had significant influence on the concept of doubt in Islamic philosophy. His theory of knowledge detailed the place for methodological doubt and epistemology in Islam. In order to acquire the ultimate truth of facts and knowledge it is crucial to analyze the various sources of knowledge. This view voiced by Al Ghazzali is emphasized in Al-Allaf. These sources and levels of knowledge should match with reality and the many levels which it constitutes.  In his argument, Al- Ghazzali identified Fitra as the state possessed by all human beings from birth and which allows them to immediately recognize their presence of an imminent creator in the world. This state not only accounts for this recognition but also for the determination of the unity between mankind and the creator. Moreover, this state can be enhanced by the use of empirical abilities and reasoning but at times it can be impeded by the presence of doctrines of disbelief and a lack of faith.

In explicating the sources of knowledge Al-Ghazzali claims that it is only through perception that man is able to understand the world. Each form of perception has been distinctly created in order to allow man to understand as many worlds of existence as possible. This accounts for the numerous things which man must either claim to know or endeavor to do so. This philosopher showcased the growth of man as being gradual and which was initiated by the senses. From touching, man becomes aware of the world and its texture and other forms of existences but this sense can only do as much. At this point man needs to us his sight in order to configure that which remains obscure after the use of the sense of touch. After these stages, man is elevated to levels which require the use of the hearing, taste and senses of smell. The intellect is a stage which surpasses the empirical senses. Instead it allows man to conceptualize what cannot be understood through these senses. Without intellect an individual is rendered powerless and unable to discern that which is of intellectual capacity. As such, they are bound to dismiss any perceptions as impossible. At the epitome of all this is the development of mere ignorance. This is also attributed to a lack of reason as this kind of man will claim the existence of such possibilities and then go ahead to live without acknowledging the same.
Prophetic knowledge is only gained through experience and successful encounters with those acclaimed as prophets. Doubt in Islamic philosophy arises when on cannot validate the true nature of such prophets. However, in order to do so it is imperative that one follows the path taken by the said prophets. Only though this acquaintance it becomes possible to delegate truth to various forms of knowledge. In fact the same applies to the increment of knowledge within the Islamic religion. Those who whole comprehend prophecy and what it entails and also dedicate their time to the understanding of the Quran are able to obtain ultimate knowledge of the prophets perceptions. Prophets are meant to be healers of human hearts and in imparting reason into man.  In his conceptualization of reality, Al- Ghazzali differs quite distinctively with other philosophical levels of reality. The epistemological sources of knowledge include revelation, prophecy and the heart which encompass the religious reality of Islam. However the metaphysical and mathematical realities of Islam construe knowledge in terms of the logical reasoning of the human intellect and the abstract and demonstrative forms of human intellect. Physical reality on the other hand has its grasp on the experiences obtained through the interaction of the human senses and intellectual activities. What culminates this concept is the Fitra earlier mentioned which involves the commencement of intuitive knowledge.

In Bakar (2007) Al-Ghazzali is said to have generated doubt within the Islamic philosophy as a result of his quest for certainty. This certainty basically illustrates the knowledge of reality as a valid truth in which knowledge can be manifested without the slightest element of doubt. Furthermore, this reality must be devoid of errors or even the possibility that the mind may misconstrue its real depiction. In observance of how most Muslims are driven to blindly cling to their beliefs, doubt plays a significant role in establishing the reality of such beliefs. This also led to their disregard for religious beliefs but only to the extent that they are misleading to Islam. In fact beliefs are said to possess a positive role when they are used in the acknowledgement of truth according to authority. Therefore if belief systems possess individuals who have acquired true knowledge and have legitimate authority then they are mandated to clarify the truth on religious knowledge. Al-Ghazzali (1980, p. 11) claims that faith is the true form of knowledge which is derived from hearsay and other peoples experiences. Prophetic knowledge falls under this category and becomes the most reliable form of religious knowledge. Beliefs do not contain intense forms of intellect and the fact that it is an avenue of both truth and error makes it an even more unreliable source of knowledge.

In traditional Islamic epistemology there has been fundamental significance placed on the relationship between knowledge and science. Dahlen (2003, p.55) explains that epistemology has ventured into understanding the nature of knowledge and the sources and limits of cognition in formulating knowledge. While the Quran has been shown to play a big role in comprehending these aspects of knowledge, science has not been that far removed from the debate. In fact science is just another component of knowledge. It deals with the materialistic world and has natural objects and phenomena which is observed and measured through the perception of the human senses. Scientific knowledge is thus comprised of the critical elements of observation and reflection. Observation only exercises the experiential senses while reflection entails reason, speculation and the derivation of hypothesis. The meaning and importance of any observed reality is understood through the study of particular predetermined hypothesis. Moreover, simplistic observation does not yield any vital information without the presence of logic and reasoning. A general depiction of sciences arises from the denial of any forms of reality which has not been obtained through empiricism and theoretical reasoning. Thus it is logical to conclude that all reality needs to be examined through similar studies in order to accrue results which are tenable for validation through the presence of both empiricism and reasoning.

The philosophy of science has under its umbrella the concept of religion which mainly details the existentialism which is present in the present world and the next. In fact Islamic philosophers have referred to science as an extension of religion and this also echoes the notions of Albert Einstein in his claim that neither science nor religion can exist independently. If this happens science would be depicted as lame and religion as blind. Furthermore, the Quran affirms that religion does not reject any forms of scientific truths but science does reject religious truths. When the Quran details the work of God it cannot be distanced from the reality of these works as seen in the display of the laws of nature. Science dedicates its studies to the conceptualization and understanding of these laws. Regardless of the lack of perfect synchrony between religion and science Islamic epistemology has found a place for science. As one of the essential tools of science induction uses the observation of detailed phenomena in the formulation of various possible conclusions. Nature in all its forms falls under the category of observable phenomena and using science the chaotic diversity of human nature is unraveled. From the simple concepts of sense experiences these laws transverse to logical systems of thought which is not only verifiable but also authentic. The epistemological concept of the Quran is also founded on inductive reasoning. Through many texts and implications in the Quran it pushes individuals to use their senses, intellect and reason when analyzing their experiences. They are also motivated to explore the extensive world in search of phenomena which will provide different levels of empiricism which further details the various levels of knowledge. The Quran has thus imparted a huge responsibility to all Muslims that they use their inductive intellect in conceptualizing the underlying laws of nature. Munawar (1995) explains that Islamic philosophy is overwhelmed by immense proportions of knowledge. As such most have argued that faith has been responsible for the development of the Muslim civilization. This lack of regard for science does not however indicate that it is inconsequential. In essence it has gained a quintessential role of asserting a form of spiritual identity in the modern world.

The Islamic epistemology and concept of knowledge cannot be completely exhausted without the study of education. Unlike other forms of religion, education has been strongly emphasized in Islam. Al-Attas (2009) explains that since in the ancient times the representation of living objects in mosques had been prohibited, Muslims could not acquire education as the Christians of such times did through the study of biblical scenes in the church. It thus became apparent that it was significant that Muslims learn the craft of reading.  In fact, Prophet Muhammad in the Quran is observed to encourage Muslims to endeavor to acquire knowledge even from such faraway lands like China. Since the conception of Islam, education has been an important part of the same. This has been further elevated by the by the centrality of the Quran which all Muslims are obligated to learn. Other influences for the desire of knowledge have been the possibilities of learning the knowledge required for the practice of many Islamic activities. For instance, the Islamic pillars require individuals to possess knowledge of Islamic prayers and the critical understanding of the hajj. When education is understood as the teaching, learning and acquisition of knowledge, then, it becomes credible that the understanding of Islamic philosophy focuses on the concept of knowledge. Al-Attas (1980, p.18) describes knowledge as the proper recognition of the rightful places of all forms of creation in a way it eventually culminates to the identification of Gods rightful place in the order of existence.

Islamic epistemology details that both knowledge and education are mot mere formulations for the gaining of information of the capability to understand and analyze nature. Instead, these two entities also formulate links to the understanding of divine nature and the reality of human beings. Allah as the main source of knowledge is a belief which has led to the affirmation of the possibilities of both education and knowledge. When this knowledge is derived from God it is conceptualized through several channels. These channels include revelation, teachings, perception, logical reasoning and intuitive capabilities. This further confirms the claims by Al-Attas (1990, p.1) that education is acquired through the use of both deductive and inductive forms of reasoning. Belief has been identified as a crucial component of Islamic knowledge.  The views which can be deducted from these beliefs together with the Quran teachings and their various forms are what incorporate the totality of Islamic consciousness. As such all Muslims must search and cultivate knowledge and it is this concept which accounts the past studies and promotion of sciences which led to the Islamic conception of enlightenment. Islamic education can indeed be traced even before the existence of western philosophy. A very important element of education in Islamic epistemology is the content. Not all forms of knowledge are reflective of education and therefore it becomes necessary to establish this unique form of content. There are specific aspects which need to be inculcated within the various forms of knowledge. This element involves the comprehension of an individuals purpose of seeking knowledge. As such recognition becomes an important element in the definition of both knowledge and education. This is what eminently details the Islamic theory of education.

Contemporary studies on the epistemology of Islamic thought have continued to emphasize the representation of intellectual and conceptualization of knowledge in Islam. The Quran has also often emphasized the significance of understanding the readings within which Allah has imparted knowledge in human beings and granted them the authority to acquire their own knowledge. Without the balance of both the religious aspects and humanity elements expressed in the Quran readings there will be a misunderstanding of contemporary Islamic concepts of knowledge. This sort of equilibrium will be established when individuals are able to acknowledge the importance of religion and the laws of nature in the epistemology of Islamic thought. The respectful regard of God as a higher and authoritative being will attribute to the sensible development of todays society. It will also be quite easy and possible to acquire true knowledge. There are philosophers who call for the conceptualization of all knowledge within the Islamic epistemological constraints. As a methodological issue the Islamic conception of knowledge can be used to enforce the acknowledgement of the relationship between revelation and existentialism as part of other societies concepts of knowledge.

In conclusion, paper discussion stipulates the fundamental elements which incorporate the epistemology and Islamic concept of knowledge. From a historical background, it has been identified that Islamic philosophy holds a distinct nature of knowledge. The nature of knowledge in Islam is predicted by the Muslims search for happiness. Furthermore, this is made obligatory by the Quran which through prophetic revelations encourages Muslims to undertake individual responsibilities in their acquisition of knowledge. Identified sources of knowledge are revelation, empiricism and logical reasoning. While they might exist independently, the ultimate knowledge in Islam requires the interaction of these entities with human intellect. This significant placement of intellect at the forefront of Islamic epistemology has been argued in line with Sadras intelligible features. The interaction of empirical observations and the intellectual subjects culminates into knowledge being the fundamental threshold of human beings.

Other aspects of Islamic epistemology discussed in the paper include the role of doubt in Islamic knowledge. Advanced by Al-Ghazzali doubt is only permitted in Islamic philosophy when it leads to the formation of intellectual certainty. If not so, it becomes an impediment of knowledge and also fosters ignorance. In a bid to establish the connection between knowledge and education the element of recognition of reality and the place of God in existentialism has been noted to be of crucial importance. In conclusion, it is paramount that epistemology and the concept of knowledge in Islamic philosophy have a vital role to play in todays society. Due to its strong foundation in truth, Islamic philosophy can be emulated by all societies which aim at encouraging the use of knowledge for the attainment of lasting development.

Friedman in his analysis of the social responsibilities of a business acknowledges the fact that previous analysis have mostly been loose and lacked the vigor necessary to justify the theories put forth regarding social responsibility of corporate entities. The question of social responsibility of any entity leaves a lot to be discussed and solutions attained. In putting forth the question Does corporate entities have social responsibilities one is left with a whole lot of puzzles to solve. Social responsibility is basically corporate responsibility. While each corporate entities responsibility is making profit, it is vital to ask, whether there are any other responsibilities that are expected of corporations. This paper seeks to explore the social responsibilities of any firm and further look in to the two theories put forth stakeholder theory and the stockholder theory in order to develop a conclusion as to which of the two is a justifiable approach to decision making in firms. It will further highlight the failures of the stockholder theories that make the stakeholder theory as my preferred model of corporate decision making. The main questions this paper will be seeking to answer is Does corporate organizations have social responsibilities other than making profit.

Social responsibilities originate from basic to the most fundamental unit of a corporate executive. It originates from ones own conscience, family and eventually the country or even the globe as a whole. Ones social responsibility may be guided by the effects from his nucleus origin or even key global issues like the ozone depletion. When this person is a corporate executive, this decision may translate into a corporate executive decision that could positively or negatively affect the lives of the people. Friedman questions, within which premises will such a person can exercise social responsibility without going overboard and exercising roles assigned to various other entities within the society like legislation, jurisdiction and implementation. When he asks the moral basis of employing unskilled workers in order to reduce poverty or using stockholders resources to conserve the environment through managing pollution, he poses another question as to what limit can a corporate executive exercise social responsibility. In summary, Friedman describes social responsibility as a cloak of actions that are actually justified on grounds other than the reason for such actions. Two theories have been put forth in discussing social responsibility of firms. These are stakeholders theory and the stockholders theory.

The stakeholders theory was developed by Freeman.  The corporate management is put under an obligation to both stakeholders and stockholders. All the groups that are in one way or another affected by either one or a combination of a firms operation are taken into consideration. The theory in essence acknowledges that for the success of a firm, the interests of all the stakeholders need to be put into consideration. It creates a separation between management and ownership of the firm. Ethically, it expresses a moral sentiment as to the need to treat people as and end rather than a means to maximizing profit. By putting the interest of all the stakeholders at heart, the theory in deed builds the public image of the firm as all the stakeholders find some sort of contentment in the fact that their wishes have been put into consideration thus they tend to identify more with the firm. However some critics of this theory have long argued that the theory proposes that all the stakeholders be included in key decision making, this is not true. It would be fallacious to say that treating someone as an end rather than a means requires his active participation rather this will only require following of a set of ethical and legal values stipulated. A good example may be, following the terms of employment. The theory may in essence be summarily defended by the appeal to rights and dignity of all the stakeholders involved and secondly, the appeal for overall good of the society. In summary, stakeholders theory may be defined as an illustration of the corporate social responsibilities taking into regard the interests of the employees, customers and the society other than the main goal of profit making on behalf of the stockholders.

On the other hand, the stockholders theory put forth by Friedman puts the shareholders interest far above that of the customers, suppliers, employees as well as other key stakeholders of the firm. It focuses more on the language of hierarchy with the top most member of the hierarchy having hisher interest first. The managers who basically make key corporate decisions are arguably agents of the stockholders thus the theory proposes that the managers key responsibility is to the stockholders.The stockholder provides the capital as an investment and thus serves as the profiteer of the corporation. His prime and possible single interest is to maximize profit. It therefore follows that by putting his interest first, profit becomes the sole driving decision making parameter of the corporation. Friedman, in putting forth his theory, states that there exists only one social responsibility of a business which is using its resources in activities that increase its profits within the rules of the game. This includes engaging in a free competition, without deception or fraud of any form. This in essence puts the main focus on maximizing profit and hence satisfy stockholders who are the investors in the firm. The high profits ensure that capital is readily available. Ethically its proponents may argue that every owner of a property is liable to fully reap the benefits arising from it. In this case, the company belongs to the stockholders. Basically, the theory is defended by the appeal to property of shareholders and the appeal to contract of the business manager. The theory also referred to as the shareholder theory may be summarily said to be a proponent of the existence of only one social obligation of a firms cooperate management, which is maximizing profit for the shareholders.

In general I may say that the stakeholders theory is more appealing as compared to stockholders theory. It forms a heuristic for viewing corporations as comprising of all stakeholders including the shareholders, customers and employees. Though limited by the focus it puts on the human participants only, it is more appealing as it has plenty of ethical backing with it. While the critics have argued that it gives the managers some intractable philosophical difficulties when it comes to dealing with some non-human topics as natural environments, this is not true. Generally, any environmentalist will agree that environment and the community are interrelated. The environment is basically a cycle of activities that form the life of humans. It therefore would be false to make the claims mentioned above. Not a Single Corporation can claim to be considerate of the community without considering how its activities impact on the environment the same community live in.  Stakeholders theory therefore moves to capture all the fundamental areas that its critics may move in to cite as its failures.

Stockholders theorys friendliness to stockholders ends up ignoring key factors that play a critical role in corporate development in the modern world. While initially, stockholder management theory formed the basis for business management, the 21st century has provided more challenges that it may be unable to handle. Its policies are unable to capture the global, multifaceted approach that businesses have had to take. In instances where it where it captures the same, its evident that it may be too late to take any appropriate action against it. Through lack of consideration of various stakeholders who play a key role or are affected by a firm, the corporations public image may be tainted beyond repair. Public image is known to play a fundamental role in development of corporations. The recent past has seen corporations adopt publicity campaigns which involves the community as a marketing strategy. This in essence though intent on making profit, puts into consideration the interests of the community and uses this to build its image as a stepping stone towards expounding its market. The growing needs of the market and competition have led firms to attempt to present themselves as socially responsible to all the stakeholders in a bid to win market shares.

Another fundamental shortcoming of the stockholders theory is its inconsistency with the law. Over time, legal procedures have evolved to put constraints concerning the required trade offs in the corporate world. Different countries have introduced legislations that ensure that all corporations are held socially responsible for their activities. Taking an example of the product liability law, the law upholds that all corporations must and will be held liable for effects resulting from its product. The civil rights act further imposes restrictions on firms to observe moral ethics through illegalizing discrimination of other groups like the disabled and the aged. The companies are compelled to exercise moral decisions that go beyond their obligation of profit making. In essence, it acknowledges that all corporations must put into consideration the claims made by its stakeholders including customers, suppliers, the local community and the employees.

Its inconsistency with the basic social ethics further renders it ineffective in the modern world. Previously, it had been argued that business decisions should be separated from ethical decisions. This is however impossible as both have to be integrated to enhance the success of a business. Freeman states that the pursuit of profit is in deed wicked and immoral if not curbed by other external forces. He also cites the need for integrating ethics as part of a complex stakeholder system rather than treating it as a side constraint to profit making. For the success of the business it is fundamental to incorporate both normative and applied ethics in running of the business. Ethics forms a ground for moral judgment of any corporation. The changing world has seen corporations relieving their corporate management executives, off their duty on the basis that their actions taints the image of the company publicly regardless of the fact that they have previously performed well in increasing of profits. Unlike stakeholders theory which forecasts the expectations that may result from today, stockholders theory puts more emphasis on ensuring that a company makes maximal profit in a given financial year.

The corporations that serve the interest of the stakeholders have emerged in the current world as the major profit making entities. Their engagement in operations that mutually benefit all the stakeholders have made them successful and prosperous compared to the others. When the employees for instance feel left out, their morale will definitely be low and this will impact negatively on production of these firms. On the other hand employees whose interests are considered, have high morale and thus production will be highly increased and ultimately increased profits will result into stockholder satisfaction while the interest of other stakeholders is also considered. Lack of value can therefore be a result of stockholders theory of corporate decision making. This would result from the low morale of other stakeholders who may offer advice, provide land for expansion and even increase productivity.

The stockholders theory also ignores the role of normative arguments instead focusing on making profits within the law. The law is its only constraint.  Management ignores the role of distinguishing between right and wrong in decision making and instead bases all decisions on profit making. This ends up hurting the very people who can contribute to development of the corporation needless to mention the resulting poor imaging and branding of the corporate organization. Its resistance to change leads to the ultimate negative impacts on the entity. Its failure to fulfill the needs of the different people ranging from local population, customers and employees leaves the corporation vulnerable for targeting by pressure groups, damages their image and brand, results to loss of large amount of sales, disgruntled customers and incurring of plenty of legal expenses.

In conclusion, it will be important to note the ignorance of the stockholders theory to social consequences hence the need for an adequate theory for corporate social responsibilities within corporate organizations. This is where corporate stakeholder responsibility comes in as a substitute. It caters for the weaknesses displayed by the other model. Unlike stockholders theory, it does not allow stockholders to abridge the rights of others. It further takes into consideration key business virtues of fairness, efficiency, integrity and keeping of commitments in addition to being in line with the pragmatists view of ensuring freedom and solidarity in everyday life (Tom L. Beauchamp 66). It is important that all stakeholders in any corporation are treated within the standard ethical guidelines of the society (Tom L. Beauchamp 70).  Through this, the business takes an economic approach in which all stakeholders are considered to possess economical assets which are traded off to obtain greater profit returns which is the ultimate aim of every corporation.