tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6896722673625702742024-02-20T08:39:11.486-08:00Philosophybloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.comBlogger664125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-77814224610610904492017-07-02T05:35:00.000-07:002017-07-02T05:35:06.824-07:00Female ContraceptivesFamilies can be happy, work at best and generate good incomes to support them. However, with rising economic stains and unpredictable future for the families, there is need to control the size of families. Long a go, people would own as many children as their fertility rate would allow but today, the standard families have one to three children with the majority having two children. This is due to the increased cost of living, educational programmes, family conflict and the desire to have manageable family size. There are different types of birth control measures that are currently in use. The type of contraceptive measure one takes depends on personal interest, spousal agreement, and health status of the mother (Russell, 2003). Some of the birth control measures include the female condom, male condom, the sponge today, the oral contraceptive pill, the vasectomy, tubal ligations, abstinence and biological methods.<br />
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The birth control sponge, the so called the sponge today is a birth control is a foam sponge that contains spermicide and is usually fitted into the vagina for the purpose of preventing pregnancy. It is said to be convenient and safe for use by different women as well as its being easy to use. It cost is also low like the current market price is 9 to 15 per three sponge pack. The sponge works by releasing spermicide that prevents the movement of sperm to the uterus since it covers the cervix. The sponge today is effective for women who have not had their first delivery if used as per the prescriptions it is 91 effective. It is the most commonly use by women in the U.S (John, 2000).<br />
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Although the sponge can be used by many women, it may be difficult to use at times especially if they have an allergy with sulfa related drugs, or they have an infection in the reproductive tract. The sponge may also not be used during the menstrual flow or if one has procured an abortion, miscarriage or given birth, in the recent past.<br />
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The birth control pill is designed to be taken orally on a daily basis to control pregnancy. This is a safe, convenient and effective to use if one does not forget to take the pill any day. The cost today is about, 15-50 which is affordable every month. This type of pill works on the principle of hormones that are released in the body to prevent ovulation thus no pregnancy may occur while the pill is in use. In case fertilization occurs, implantation may not take place since the pill thin the uterine walls impairing implantation (Grimley, Lee, 1997). The pill is 100 effective if taken as prescribed, although it could be interfered with by some antibiotics and some other medicines taken orally.<br />
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The combination pill is said to protect pelvic inflammatory diseases associated with infertility. It also reduces menstrual pain and results to lighter periods as well as reduces chance for an attack by cervical cancer. The possible side effects include bleeding between periods, vomiting or even breast tenderness most of which clear in three months after the initial use. The pill may also change the cycle so that after use, it may take about 2 to 3 months for the normal cycle to return but for the irregular cycles, it may take longer for them to get the period back after stopping use.<br />
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The female condoms are very effective if they are used correctly. The female condom is put in vagina before the start of intercourse, and withdrawn carefully after since it collects semen from the male sex partner, which can spill upon mishandling. The advantage that comes along worth the use of the condoms is that it offers double protection against pregnancy and against STDs and HIV. The effectiveness ranges from 80 to 100 when using the condom. There some risks associated with the use of condom which include irritation, while some partners find it uncomfortable to use (Brick, 2003).<br />
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A condom is used only once and must be worn every time people have intercourse if they want to protect themselves against STDS as well as pregnancy.<br />
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Spermicides are also other forms of birth control which include the use of sperm killing reagents in cream form to prevent pregnancy. The diaphragm is also another available birth control measure that is used to cover the cervix just before intercourse and should not be withdrawn immediately after intercourse but after 6-8 hours to ensure maximum safety. However, they may be irritating while some people may be allergic to it. Other methods include emergency contraceptives that are taken especially when one is within the ovulation season of their period and they are not on a pill. It should not be taken frequently because it can affect the system. Hormone injections, like the Depo- Provera that are injection on the buttocks or upper arm each taking 90 days before the next (Russell, 2003). It is very effective with 100 efficiency. The implant, the skin patch, IUD methods are also in existence and useful.<br />
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In conclusion, birth control measure should be take seriously especially in developing countries to control population explosions. If users develop complications, they should seek advice from their medical advisers.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-6032331162672763472017-07-02T05:34:00.000-07:002017-07-02T05:34:31.505-07:00Traumatic Stress DisorderPost Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD, is an anxiety disorder precipitated by exposure to an even which involves actual or threatened death or serious injury, or threat to the persons integrity of self or others that causes intense fear, helplessness or horror (as cited-in Nutt Ballenger, 2003, p.65). PTSD can be divided into three classes, depending on the duration of symptoms Acute (1-3 months), Chronic (more than 6 months) and Delayed (6 months after the trauma) (Nutt Ballenger, 2003, p.65). Symptoms that can be observed in an individual who is suffering from PTSD may include the following insomnia or difficulty in sleeping, startled response, sudden anger outburst, inability to recall trauma, difficulty in concentrating, restricted range of emotions and hyper vigilance. However, appearance of symptoms vary from every individual depending on the traumatic event that occurred (Nutt Ballenger, 2003). Studies show that most individuals who naturally recover from PTSD are victims of nonsexual assault (Nutt Ballenger, 2003). Developmental factors in personal vulnerability may trigger PTSD. Individuals who have undergone early separation from parents, anxiety or depression prior the traumatic event that have caused their stress and have a family history of anxiety or depression have bigger chances in having PTSD after a traumatic experience (Nutt Ballenger, 2003).<br />
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The study of PTSD started during World War II. The war provided the opportunity to study and document the various reactions and effects of intense trauma to soldiers and camp inmates (Scaer, 2007, p.64). The study also investigated the subjects capacity to tolerate stress in the war period. The Vietnam War ignited the interest of researchers regarding the effects of traumatic stress. In 1980, Kardiner attempted to file the list of various symptoms that was observed and related to trauma into a syndrome, thus, the name Post Traumatic Stress Disorder was born. With this new accomplishment, traumatized young children and women that were ignored before, were finally given the attention they needed (Scaer, 2007). Currently, there are still revisions in the definition of PTSD because of the additional clinical features and clarifications regarding the associated symptoms. Discoveries were made possible due to the increasing number of individuals suffering from traumatic events that results to stress. As more researches were completed, the disorder covered different scopes in the mental health field of the human being.<br />
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Individuals suffering from PTSD are likely to undergo difficulties in social functioning. Emotional detachment and withdrawal from people and surroundings are observed in most cases. They feel and act indifferent to people they were close before. Aside from these symptoms, an individual may also experience interpersonal difficulties, such as avoidance of sexual contact, sudden mood swings or unresponsiveness to their loved ones. A sudden loss of a loved one to an individual may also affect his or her balanced nature and start the PTSD cycle. Researchers found out that those who suffer from PTSD have higher possibility rates and risks of suicide (Nutt Ballenger, 2003, p.78).<br />
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In every individual, coping is necessary when it comes to dealing with stress. The ability of a person to cope with stress reflects his or her mental health. A person with good coping skills will be able to identify and determine solutions for problems while a person with poor coping skills will not be able to do so. Thus his or her homeostasis will be disrupted, leading to PTSD.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-30888562789152353772017-07-02T05:29:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:29:26.795-07:00Research ProposalThe budding of a child from the innocence of childhood to the maturity of an adult can be a complicated phase for many. An important factor that plays a very significant role throughout a persons life is their sexual behavior. After the mass commercialization of every product imaginable and available to consumers through print advertisements or TV advertisements, the idea of sex is being marketed to these young children almost on a daily basis. This influence is not only limited to print or TV but the internet has also started playing an important role in being a medium which provides access to teenagers and young adults to explicit content. Responsible adults of the society and the Government should make sure that those affected by sexual harassment are given proper rehabilitation facilities (Gilgun, n.d) and that perpetrators who have committed such heinous crimes are punished.<br />
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Statement of problem<br />
Many young adults become sex offenders as they grow up and some fall victim to prey like sex addiction. Also, due to exposure to explicit content on porn sites and other inappropriate material on the web these juveniles fall prey to blackmailers, sex offenders, rapists and manipulators. In girls, this could lead to unwanted pregnancy.<br />
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Purpose of the study<br />
The purpose of undertaking this study is to predict sexual behavior in teenagers due to the kind of exposure they get from experiencing peer pressure about sex at school to movies and internet that are all filled with subtle messages about sex and how wonderful it is when the consequences of their actions are not even fully clear to the teenagers undertaking this activity and how it impacts their life ahead and also to explore what rehabilitation and recovery facilities may be provided to teenagers who have being harassed.<br />
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Hypothesis<br />
The relationship between the exposure to sex related content and sexual habits of teenagers is positive and correlated.<br />
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Methods and Procedures<br />
The method used in this study was to conduct some literature review on the topic and also gather responses through teenagers and young adults through a small survey. The questions posed to them constituted of topics ranging from the influence of the media to any personal experiences they might have encountered. Also, peer pressure was an important factor included to see the effects of how many teenagers engage in sex to fit in or submit to their peers demands.<br />
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Variables used<br />
The variables used in this questionnaire were teenagers and young adults who answered the questionnaires on the topic of how they think sexually explicit content or subtle hints at selling sex to youngsters through advertisements, movies, TV shows and even billboards.<br />
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Some impromptu personal interviews were also taken to see if people are biased in their opinion when communicating spontaneously vs. if they are given more time to choose and think their options.<br />
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Limitations and delimitations<br />
The limitation in this study comes out in the form of bias. The respondents in order to not let the interviewer or survey taker make judgments about them or relate the responses to their experiences subconsciously may give well thought out or morally fair answers rather than what they actually believe or think. Also since the scope of the study is limited to predicting sexual behavior in teenagers, factors such as puberty, violence, infatuation and internet play a stronger role in eliciting responses and decisions rather than rationality.<br />
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Significance of the study<br />
The significance of this study is that it will help point out the factors which can help us understand teenage psychology and behaviors better in order make policies or take collective community action to protect our children and rehabilitate and bring back to life those who have suffered.<br />
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This research paper aims to look at the sexual behavior in teenagers and how these sexual behaviors are encouraged in teenagers through media, internet and pop culture. Teenagers often neglect practices of safe sex. They indulge in drug abuse and alcohol and those who are routinely exposed to sexually explicit content have a higher tendency to initiate sexual behaviors. Also, those teenagers who have been subject to sexual harassment or assault at an early age can replicate the actions to take revenge from society and breed crime. The impact of selling sex through commercialization and disregard for moral and ethical values also contributes to over active sexual drive in teenagers. Lastly, the matter of female pregnancy especially the alarming rate at which it is rising in US as compared to other developed countries and the highest rate in black teenagers is a matter of concern for the society and health sector at large.<br />
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Predictions about Teen Sexual Behavior<br />
When children grow up to step into the adult phase of their lives they are faced with perhaps the most difficult situations in their lives. They are presented with new ideas, new peers, social and peer pressure and their introduction to puberty. A lot of teenagers face the emotions of infatuation, obsession, becoming cool and doing something that would establish their reputation in front of their friends. In this age of media and mass commercialization, teenagers are exposed to sex in all forms available. It is seen in movies, TV channels, TV shows, internet, music industry and even cartoons like Simpsons where sexual references are not uncommon.<br />
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It is surprising to see that while 58 of girls studying in 8th to 11th grade have faced some sort of sexual harassment occasionally or in some cases almost daily boys are also being subject to sexual harassment (Carney, 2007). The reason for such outcomes or trend seen in recent years can be the extreme exposure to sex in our culture especially to kids at an inappropriate age. This incompatibility can confuse these children who are in the process of becoming mature and distort their perceptions of sexual behavior and hinder their normal and healthy development process. Exposure to explicit content can be in the form of visual content such as is common on billboards, TV, cartoons and internet. It can also be of verbal content. A child whose parents curse and swear or use sexually explicit language and exhibit violent behavior towards each other or the society at large is subject to take the impact of such exposure and replicate such behavior when heshe grows up to be a teenager and later in their life.<br />
Perhaps, the greatest impact is of personal experience in predicting the sexual behavior of teenagers and that is usually when a person has been subject to incest or any other form of sexual and physical harassment. Such an individual becomes bitter and rebellious towards the society and takes revenge by doing those very actions and deriving satisfaction from the pain inflicted on others as a compensation for their suffering.<br />
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A recent research has linked the race, age and weight of adolescents to their sexual behaviors in case of girls. Some interesting findings that came in spotlight included but are not restricted to the fact that over weight and sexually active girls and underweight girls do not practice safe sex. Latino girls were most likely to engage in risky sexual behavior including having greater than four partners, not practicing safe sex and rampant use of alcohol (Nauert, 2009)<br />
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This finding indicates that as opposed to generalizing all teenagers exhibiting rogue sexual appetites sexual behavior in teenagers can greatly differ based on their geographical location, their environment, age and even gender. Important findings that help predict teenage sexual behavior include that, teenagers who watch sexually explicit content more often than their counterparts are likely to engage and initiate sexual intercourse earlier (Collins et al., 2004) (Also see Exhibit 1) Furthermore, the impact of verbal reference to sexual activities is the same as visual impact in teenagers leading them to become sexually active at an earlier stage in their adolescence. However, it is imperative to know that if teens are shown movies or educated about the practices of disadvantages of having sex earlier or without safe practices it can put a positive impact and create awareness among them and influence their sexual behavior.<br />
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Recently, the internet has proved to be yet another medium through which teenagers who are still in the phase of development and are excited by puberty and the various opportunities to socialize and go to parties, meet new partners and become equal to their peers is present, the access to sexually explicit content such as images, videos, pornography and the latest addition to the list social networking websites present a great danger of eliciting harmful sexual behavior. In a recent study it was found that those teenagers who use the internet and social networking websites were subject to online sexual harassment such as unwanted requests to converse about sex, provide personal information, sexual solicitation or requests to do something sexual. 33 reported online harassment including the highest percentage on instant messaging (43) and chat rooms (32). (Ybarra Mitchell, 2008) Such consequences have made internet a bane in some cases instead of a boon with negative impacts on not only the mental health but physical development of a child as more and more people suffer from complex about their bodies and abilities due to sexual references and discrimination.<br />
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Sex at an early age for some can be damaging to moral and ethical values along with inflicting psychological problems. About 3 million teenagers contract a sexually transmitted disease such as Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and even AIDS. Most agree that teenagers tend to be reckless in their behavior, and unprotected sex is just one of a host of risky behaviors in which they engage. But even for those who are always careful, accidents can happen and contraceptives can fail. Moreover, some teenagers are exploited or coerced into having sex and thus have little control over contraception (cited in Besharov Gardiner, n.d)<br />
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As exhibit 2 portrays that those engage in sex and risky behavior include marijuana, drugs and alcohol that further adds to the problem of active sex drive in teenagers.<br />
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Feral children like Genie who have had no contact with the outside world for 13 years of their life and confined to a solitary room where no auditory signals or visual signals could reach rendered this child completely different from normal teenagers. Genie could not stand erect and unable to even communicate effectively with words. She was fed baby food, cereals and eggs to keep her alive. (Curtiss, 1977) This kind of treatment rendered her completely isolated from other human beings where she was unable to communicate or understand normal human emotions or any sort of sexual desires or tendencies. Another important factor which has influenced sexual behavior in teenagers is music. According to a research article published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, April 2009, Brian Primack made the statement that in a sample of adolescents listening to lyrics of a song that feature sexually explicit lyrics the tendency to engage in pre-coital activities and sexual intercourse was higher. This finding is a cause of concern and demands educational intervention because such activities by female teenagers which result in teenage pregnancies are a matter of public health concern. The findings of this research clearly indicate that sexual messages in media may be risky and dangerous for early teenage activities (cited in Nyholm, 2009) such as involvement in sex and related risky behavior as described in exhibit 2.<br />
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Communication gap with parents can lead to increased risky behavior in adolescents. Teenagers who can openly communicate with their parents about sex and parents who expose their teens to sexual information at an appropriate age and maturity level can decrease the risk of their teenage children being exposed to reckless sexual behavior.<br />
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Peer pressure in teenagers is also an important reason for engaging in sexual intercourse at an early age. Those teenagers who are popular in school or boast about their sexual triumphs create a desire in other children to be like them and experience sex even if their minds and bodies are not yet ready for experience. Discussion of explicit content among both genders increases the tendency to engage in sexual activities which may have dire consequences such as rape, manipulation and abuse of drugs and alcohol not to mention the risks of teenage pregnancy in case of neglecting safe sex practices.<br />
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Across adolescence, teenagers begin to look up to their peers and friends for support rather than their family and spend considerable amount of time with opposite-sex peers and the time spent with family decreases substantially. Teenagers begin to use each other for entertainment and intimacy and this marks an individuals shift to attachment with peers versus attachment with family members (Florsheim, 2003) This clarifies that the more a person spends time with the opposite sex the urge to communicate intimacy and sexually increases in a person and often culminates at an improper age in early teenage where teenagers do not fully experience the pleasure of engaging in sexual activities and take part in sexual acts merely for fun or to increase their reputation in front of their peers. Only in USA, teenagers have to pay heavy costs of healthcare that is why most teenagers whether male or female avoid going to the doctor and taking medical help because of the costs associated with healthcare (Table 1)<br />
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Sexuality occupies a special place in the lives of most people living in Westernsociety. Individuals are curious about the topic, and will at times exert unusualeffort to find answers to their questions. The trends in sexual behavior differ according to not only age and gender but also race (Table 2) as black and Hispanic teenagers are assumed to be more reckless in their sexual behavior and use drugs and alcohol as well. Anyone familiar with the tattered, soilededges of references to sex in the card catalogs of university libraries can gaugefairly accurately the popularity of such information. Sex sells--witness the relatively recent surge in the number of articles and reports on sexual behavior inperiodicals and newspapers (Byrne Fisher, 1983).<br />
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Lastly, the problem of teenage pregnancy among females is of considerable importance since three quarters of a million females between the ages of 15-19 become pregnant each year. Out of all these pregnancies 82 are unplanned. Black female teenagers have the highest teen pregnancy rate and 29 terminate their pregnancies through abortion. The teenage pregnancy rates are twice as high in other developed countries (Lowen, n.d). This alarming rate has now become a matter of public health concern since taxpayer dollars are used to pay for the increase population in terms of benefits and other services such as social care and adoption. Teenage females who become pregnant have to face pressure and in some cases harassment from society and even friends and family and such teens face isolation and become victims of depression. Female teenagers may be forced to drop out of school due to external pressures and choose dangerous methods such as abortion instead of adoption and seeking help from social service. Female teenagers who become mothers of children out of wedlock face enormous difficulties if they decide to raise the child alone due to societal pressures to raise the child as a single parent. Such mothers and children become victim of poverty as they may have to drop out of school.<br />
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The Add Health survey shows that teenagers who are sexually active are 21 of the time likely to drop out of high school before graduating as compared to those who abstain from sex at 8.6. It further shows that teenagers who abstained from engaging in sexual intercourse until they reached a majority age of 18 were twice as likely to graduate from college at 15.8 as compared to sexually active teenagers who had initiated sex before the age of 18 at a mere 7.4.<br />
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Teenage sexual behavior can be controlled through awareness and education. Abstinence is an important part of sex education in teaching teenagers and young adults about safe sex. 90 parents believe that abstinence education should be given to stop teenagers from engaging in sexual activities until they have finished at least high school and their minds have developed and matured. 84 parents think that sex should not be allowed until an individual is married because sexual activities are not only unethical and impact a persons psychology but it also exposes juvenile teenagers to the harms of sexually transmitted diseases. Such factors are not given a thought by teenagers who have an active sex drive and the consequences of engaging in sexual activities without the full knowledge of its consequences can be harmful. Social science data shows that teenagers who abstain from sex are less likely to be depressed and commit suicide, to have children out of unwanted pregnancies and live in poverty or welfare dependence from adults. Also, it is interesting to note that teenagers who abstain from sex have longer lasting relationships and marriages as adults (Rector Johnson, 2005) Teenagers who abstain from sex are also subject to fare better in terms of academic performance as they will be subject to less emotional complications as compared to sexually active teenagers. Teenagers who are likely to abstain from sex also possess character traits such as perseverance, resistance to peer pressure and more respect for society norms and moral values. Possession of such character traits in abstinent teens highlights success factors for future life.<br />
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Thus, teenage sexual behavior is influenced and can be predicted by many ways including the communication gap, transition from being a child to adult and romantic relationships. The need to fit in with peers as well as internet and popular media have put a lot of influence and subtle indications towards sex in forms of not only TV shows but movies and cartoons have led to children being exposed to sexual behavior at a very tender, immature and early age which can complicate life for them in later years as they could be exploited, raped, manipulated and suffer from physical or psychological harm.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-44364119321708525042017-07-02T05:27:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:27:36.912-07:00Fetal Sex Selection Is fetal sex selection harmful to society<br />
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Fetal sex selection entails choosing the sex of a child one would like to have. It is done through selective abortion, preimplantation genetic diagnosis or sperm sorting whichever the technique used sex selection is debatable as a section of the society views it as harmful while others view it as beneficial. This work reviews literature regarding whether fetal sex selection is harmful to the society. It is notable that sex selection is a form of sexism it promotes inequality and high sex rations. It is also viewed that sex selection is good for medical reasons and family balancing. As such, this work concludes that guidelines should be laid down on when sex selection should be done.<br />
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Introduction<br />
Burmganer (2007) defines sex selection as application of medical techniques in choosing an offsprings sex. Among the sex selection techniques include sperm sorting, preimplantation genetic diagnosis and selective abortion (Burmganer, 2007, p 1289). Fetal sex selection can be done either before pregnancy or during pregnancy. With development of technology and more understanding of human biology, it is now possible to select for the sex of a baby depending on an individuals preference. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) basically involves screening the embryo for the preferred sex before the embryo is implanted. Sex selection is also done through abortion which is an older technique. In this case, the growing fetus is screened for sex using techniques such as amniocentesis or ultrasound testing. Once a couple identifies through the various testing methods that the woman is carrying a fetus of a particular sex that they may not be of preference, they may decide to abort the fetus.<br />
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There are many reasons as to why people select for certain sex. These range from health-related reasons to cultural reasons. It is for instance known that most Asian cultures prefer the male child to the girl child (Wertz Fletcher, 1998). As far as culture is concerned, there are some cultures which prefer boys than girl child for such reasons as seeing girls as extra burden to the community. The boy child in most Asian countries gains preference over the girl child as it is viewed that boys have economic, hereditary or even cultural value than girls. Girls on the other hand are viewed as bearing great financial implications in terms of raising them. As such, girls have been selected against through either aborting the fetus or killing the infant (Liu Rose, 1996). There are also personal reasons while selecting for any particular sex. For instance, a couple who may have several boys with no girl child may prefer sex selection in an effort to get a girl child. In case of health related reasons, there are certain sex-linked conditions such as hemophilia A and Duchenne muscular dystrophy that seem to affect a certain gender only (males in the above conditions). In an attempt to end the suffering associated with such conditions along the family line, a couple may decide to select for the sex that is not affected by the disease.<br />
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The above issues are debatable and they raise moral and ethical questions. This paper presents a review of literature on the question of whether sex selection is harmful to the society.<br />
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Literature review<br />
There are two sides to the issue of fetal selection with one side bringing harmful outcomes in the society whereas the other one presenting beneficial outcomes. Burmganer (2007) explores the effects of sex selection in the Asian society especially in India and China and identifies that sex selection results into great disparities in sex ratios. Burmganer cites that sex ratio in India as per the 2001 census was 933 females to 1000 males. It is also worrying that the sex ratio disparity is increasing in China with 116.6 males 100 females being born in 2000 compared to a lower ratio of 113.3 males 100 females in 1990. The rising trend in sex selection in the Indian society however can be justifiable since the female child is associated with economic burdens as the culture requires that the bride pays the dowry to the bridegroom. The dowry price and the costs associated with weddings in the Indian society may be very high for some economically unstable families. It is for instance estimated that dowry costs may reach up to U.S. 35,000 which is too high for families that are earning about U.S. 3,500 annually. That being the case, women especially from the poor families in India select against the female child to avoid future agony. Burmganer (2007) indicates that dowry may result to the death of the bride more so by immolation if for instance they fail to pay in time or the amount is not as per the husbands expectations.<br />
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Viewing the issue of sex selection from a global perspective, Sharma (2007) sees sex selection through the various available technologies as a way eliminating one gender (in her case the female gender). Sharma (p 1744) argues that with assisted reproductive technology which has facilitated sex preference more than 100 million females have died on a global scale making her refer to sex selection as a mass gendercide. The greatest contributor countries to the mass gendercide are the Asian countries that have a patriarchal culture that favors males.<br />
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It is not a universal phenomenon that sex selection discriminates against females while favoring males. In fact, this preference is more restricted to the Asian countries with the western world selecting for particular sex depending on different views. In Canada for instance, sex selection does not seem to favor either sex with sex preference being mainly based on the need to balance the family. This is an example of ensuring equality along gender line as most Western families would prefer at least an equal representation of each sex among their children (Dickens, 2002). The argument that the Western families do not show sex preference is controversial if one were to go with a study carried out by Steinbacher and Gilroy (1990) on sex preference among young adults. Steinbacher and Gilroy found out that most undergraduates preferred having a boy child as their first born regardless of the race, sex or religious backgrounds of the individuals. Burmganer (2007) also notes that most American women (94) and men (81) would prefer to have their first born child being a male. <br />
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Sex selection can be very beneficial in cases where there is fear of a sex-linked disease such as hemophilia. In a sex-linked disease, the disease in question is passed down the family tree along a particular sex. In hemophilia A for instance, a hemophilic mother always transfers the hemophilia gene to her male children whereas the female child may only become a carrier of the disease at the worst instance. A hemophilic individual suffers from recurrent bleeding and severe arthritis. Luckily, Boyle and Savulescu (2003) indicate that it is possible to detect hemophilia A during prenatal diagnosis. As such, a couple who wants to eradicate the suffering brought about by hemophilia A may select for girls (who are not carriers) only. The same argument for sex selection sets in when discussing the other sex-linked conditions. Sex selection for medical reasons is therefore a good means of ensuring that children experience a good health and can access a variety of available opportunities. <br />
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Sex selection for medical reasons has been a largely accepted view in most societies. There is however fear that sex selection could lead a slippery slope with sex selection being misused for sexism purposes as well as cosmetic purposes. In such a case, Wertz and Fletcher, (1998) views that selecting for particular sex is likely to cause an imbalance in sex ratio. Such has been the case among the Indians and the Chinese. It is also viewed that sex selection would alter the birth order which would translate to inequality along gender. The birth order argument is however contended by Dickens (2002) who argues that a couple should always be allowed to select for the second or subsequent children as a way of addressing the potential inequality. This would in the long-term mean that a certain gender is discriminated against and is unevenly distributed in the general population.<br />
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By allowing a woman to choose the sex of their child, autonomy is greatly promoted. Puri and Nachtigall (2009) found out that many sex selection services providers regard sex selection as a means of empowering women. They observed that most physicians would offer sex selection services to couples as a means of helping them make well informed decisions regarding their family planning practices. Through sex selection, a couple would be able to create a balance in their family constitution as desired. As such, these authors argue that abortions resulting from unwanted pregnancies would be reduced whereas the possibility of having some children neglected or abused due to dislike minimized. Rhodes (2006) views that when a couple is allowed to select for a particular sex, then they are likely to give the child the best possible care which would lead to the child living a good life without being neglected. This is unlike when a couple relies on trial and error method and the resultant child may not be of preferred sex thus they may tend to neglect the child. With the current sex selection technologies however, it is feared that not only would it be possible to have a child of the desired sex but in addition it would be able to incorporate desired characteristics in the child.<br />
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The ethicality of sex selection is also brought in the question of sex selection. Sex selected is largely viewed as an ethical issue especially when the sex selection technologies are brought aboard. Neil (2007) argues that while it is a moral issue as regards whether an embryo should be destroyed, it is no less a moral issue as regards failure to begin the life of the embryo. This means that whether a couple chooses to use abortion selection or the more sophisticated preimplantation genetic diagnosis, the issue will still revolve around either terminating a life or failing to begin a life.<br />
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Sexism is associated with sex selection especially in cases where the male is the preference sex. As a result, Neil (2007) claims that the high disparity in sex distribution gives birth to violent societies. Neil specifically cites a sexist society that is predominated by males that has a higher likelihood of experiencing crime and antisocial activities since the young males in the society are unattached. For instance, Asian countries such as Pakistan and India have high sex ratios predominated by males and as such they have and still experience conflict and volatility. Neil argues that such wars are among the means of restoring the high sex ratios.<br />
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As much as couples in the western society may cite that they prefer sex selection for the purposes of ensuring family balance, there is the potential malice of simply discriminating against one gender. It is noted that most couples in the West will go for sex selection when they intend to have a single child. As such, they make preference for a certain gender depending on whatever reasons they may find comfortable to them. Neil (2007) highlights that there are some women who choose a female child based on the view that they will develop better relationship and closeness with the daughter. It is a general observation that although sex preference does not bring a major disparity in the sex ratios in the Western world, preference for the girl child is slightly higher. Neil sees the greatest danger with sex selection in the West as having the sexism mind. The argument is that the choice of sex of the child in the Western society is based on the view that that particular gender harbors specific psychological dispositions, which is itself sexism.<br />
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Critical appraisal<br />
The above review of literature has many implications regarding sex selection. In the first place there is no doubt that the issue of sex selection is an ethical debate. In addition, sex selection is a prevalent issue which has cultural relativism at the center. Whereas one society may tolerate sex preference for a certain gender, based on arguments that are right to the society, other societies strongly oppose the practice. The sex selection debate is exacerbated by the advent of sophisticated medical technologies that are able to determine the sex of a child not only during pregnancy but also prior to. Either way, the implications of sex selection must be felt regardless of the sex selection technique applied.<br />
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Using the evidence from cultures that have practiced sex selection, one can only expect even higher sex ratios in the future unless a proper measure is taken. As much as the Chinese and the Indian societies may support their practice of boy preference, the fact is that their own communities are to suffer most. The high number of conflicts arising from a male biased society as indicated in the literature review does not only affect the general society. Such a society can rarely experience economic prosperity with instability. These findings show that sex selection has the potential to result to an unstable society. But as much as sex selection may be condemned from the perspective of the harms that it causes, there may not be any near hope that this trend will end among the Asian countries. The practice is rooted deeply in their cultures and it would only call for a change in the culture (which is obviously hard) for one to expect change in the way sex selection is viewed. <br />
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Extending preference for a particular gender is a sexism practice that only promotes inequality. Although the above literature seems to portray the Asian practice of selection against females as the main form of gender inequality, the West are camouflaging in the name of family balancing.<br />
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It is not appropriate to rule out the possibility of sex selection due to the benefits that it holds. The advancements in medicine that are able to screen for fatal genetic conditions are great contributors to the move towards sex selection. It is logical and ethically correct to allow couples decide to choose the sex of the child if the otherwise selected against child would only have ended suffering. In fact Burmganer (2007) states the Americans of South Asian heritage hold the same high preference for males just as any Asian has in their native land. Sex selection can be viewed positively as it can help in balancing the population in terms of sex composition. The same balance can also be achieved in a family. In a family or society that is predominated by males, sex selection may favor females thus bringing a balance in this composition.<br />
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Although the implications of disparities of sex ratio differences are not noted in the above literature, it is possible to foresee a situation whereby the general population would decrease as people alter the natural balance in sex distribution. For instance, a society that has a disproportionately low number of females is no doubt bound to have a reduction in the reproductive rate in the long run. In addition, it is possible to increase social ills such as women trafficking or rape as the number of the available women is disproportional to the available men.<br />
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The lack of credible instances where sex selection has spilled over to malpractices does not rule out the possibility. Sex selection has the likelihood of being used by malicious individuals to select for other discriminatory traits. It would not be a wonder to hear that a couple selected for a baby (of either sex) with certain IQ characteristics or certain skin color in the name of sex selection. At least this should be appraised with the turn of sex selection from the basis of medical risks to the now common family balancing in the west. Individuals who will not afford the more sophisticated sex selection technologies will have disadvantaged children who will face unfair competition from the better selected children.<br />
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The practice of sex selection among the Indians based on cultural practice is not justifiable. Need to avoid dowry expenses should not cause girls to be aborted and as such, sex selection in this case is a pure sexism issue. Why is it that a society where males provide the dowry does not select against the male child to avoid such expenses Why is it that in these societies, females are not selected for as a way of using them later to amass wealth through bride price Such questions should be raised against the practice of sex selection among the Indians.<br />
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It is not easy to draw a conclusion on whether sex selection should be practiced or not seeing that there are reasonable views on why it should and why it should not be done. However, every society ought to draw the limits in which sex selection should operate in order to maintain a balance of the benefits and the potential harms. <br />
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Conclusion<br />
The debate on sex selection is a real issue in the society and has been in practice for quite a long time. The developments of medical technologies that can facilitate sex selection seem to lay the ground for the debate. Sex selection has made it possible to eradicate genetic diseases in families and this has been generally acceptable. However, some cultures like the Asian cultures have been preferring males to females and thus practicing sexism, the West has been doing sex selection in the name of family balancing. It is however still evident that there is an element of sexism in the same. It is also possible to cause great differences in sex ratios with sex selection with women being largely discriminated against. This debate does not cease to be controversial especially when a couples autonomy is brought in. it would only be wise for every society to weigh the benefits against the ills and then formulate guidelines regarding sex selection.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-13241920260103012802017-07-02T05:26:00.000-07:002017-07-02T05:26:11.865-07:00The significance of melody for the deafMelody involves the way sound is arranged to form musical patterns. It may involve word arrangement to form a certain sequence. Melody indicates succession events and thus the events are arranged following a certain order. In order to attain melody, there are several factors which should take place. There should be some change in the sequencing. The duration of interval between sequential events should change. Pitches also change during succession of linear events. Melody is mostly shown by the interaction of musical patterns. This occurs where there is change of events. The elements of melody include pitch and quality. The quality of melody is defined by loudness, sound texture and resonance. Musical phrases are concerned in forming melodies. The musical phrases which form melodies may be several or can even be one. Repetition of the musical phrases denotes the occurrence of melody. The repetition may occur in the inset of a song. The melodic motion can be used to describe melody. Other factors which describe melodies include pitch interval. Sound is the medium of music and involves arrangement of words in a sequential order. Music has various elements. Melody is governed by pitch which is a musical element. Other elements of music include texture, timbre and rhythm. Deaf people communicate to hearing people by the use of tonal expression. They get words as they come out of the lips.<br />
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Melody differs from other qualities of music. The essential elements of music include harmony, dynamics, melody and rhythm. Music composition takes in to consideration various factors. There are the fundamentals in composing music. Music is really defined by considering the essential elements which include harmony, dynamics, melody and rhythm. Music soul is provided by melody. Harmony expression is blended by rhythm. Dynamics elaborates on the tempo or speed of a phrase. Song is composed by combining these essential elements. Melody involves successive events or musical tones. It also involves successive pitches. Melody is characterized by various factors such as movement, shape and range. In music, there are both the highest and lowest tones. The distance in between these tones defines the range. Range can either be high, low or medium according to singers. There are scenarios when melody concentrates on few given notes. This is said to have narrow range.<br />
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Conversely to this, there are occasions when notes are shifted from low to high pitches. This gives a wide range. This may take a couple of steps on the musical scale. Melody has a distinctive shape. This denotes the direction. Melody shape gives the manner in which the notes would behavior if they were arranged in a certain sequence as in the case of a geometrical line. Wavelike shape is formed in the case of narrow range. Upward shape occurs due to ascend of notes. There are two factors which define movement disjunct or conjunct. Conjunct occurs in the case where melody is arranged in a stepwise manner. Disjunct on the other hand, occurs when there is no natural connection. In this case, the pitches leap from one to another.<br />
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The parameters which give melody structure are its intensity and length. This takes the same scenario as the sentences included in language. Some examples in this case include climax and the cadence. A musical phrase has an end which has some features. This musical ending is what is referred to as cadence. Climax occurs when there is high intensity.<br />
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Notes and chords can be played simultaneously. The relation portrayed by chords and notes when played simultaneously denote the harmony in the musical phrases. When chords and notes are arranged in successive manner, they form harmonic patterns. Intervals can either be harmonic or melodic. Intervals that are sequenced and are linear are known to be melodic. On the other hand, those intervals which sound at once are known to be harmonic. Harmonic patterns may be pleasing or unpleasing to the ears. This varies since some may find it pleasing while others the same harmonies unpleasing.<br />
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Chords are taken to have meaning. The reason behind this is because they are bound to form other chords from the original chords. Music has different styles in which progressions finds different acceptance rates. Triad is a basic to every harmony. There are various types of chords of which the common one is the triad. The scale is comprised of several notes of which some of these form the triad. The notes of the scale which form the triad are the first, third and the fifth. The sixth, fourth and the second notes are included in the case when the triad when the second note forms the triad. In this case the interval is still maintained. Sub dominant and Tonic are some of the names given to some of the chords. This includes the IV chord and the triad chord consecutively. Musical time is generally the rhythm. Timely flow gives the rhythm in music. Beat in music refers to the pulsation which takes place.<br />
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Deaf people have a composition which is unique in a way. Sign language is mostly used by deaf people (Spencer Patricia E., 2000). The culture adopted by deaf people is unique defined by certain values and goals. The primary language used in United States by deaf people is the American Sign Language. American Sign Language is both manual and visual. The language involves the use of signs. These sign are formed as a result of body movement, by use of hands, posture of the body and facial expression. Emotion, information and useful ideas are conveyed through American Sign Language by the deaf people. This takes place with much versatility and complexity.<br />
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There are some deaf people who are in a position to get wording from the lips. This enables communication between deaf people and hearing people. Despite of this being of advantage, research indicate that there are few English words which can be traced from the lips. Lip reading is considered to be frustrating and unreliable. This is because of the possibility of misunderstanding because of guessing what might be portrayed in the lips (Gardner Howar, 1999). There are some deaf people who are in a position to read the lips. Conversion is normally carried out between hearing people and the deaf during public rallies through lip reading. Interpreters of sign language are vital in ensuring efficient communication.<br />
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Communication with deaf people who are highly skilled in lip reading lies on melodic universe. When composing music, the composer arranges notes to have a certain value. Musical statement is formed by mixing the essential elements of rhythm, melody and harmony. This is the same way a painter mixes colors to get a certain shape and brightness. Melodic concept is developed upon playing a melody instrument. Such instruments include piano, horn and guitar. Melodic ideas are complemented upon playing melody instrument such as piano. This calls for use of relevant harmonies and rhythmic concept. There are times when counter melodies are essential. The listener of music has singular experience to melodies. This is why certain notes are repeatedly used to compose new songs. A single note is concentrated at a time. This is what is referred to as melodic line. Emotional, tonal, sublimal and musical information is conveyed through this medium. The listening experience is formed from the harmonic and rhythmic structures. A listener is normally swayed by the melodic line. This is what is heard.<br />
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Hearing enables capture what is happening in the environment. Negotiation with the surrounding can be achieved through hearing. Spoken language can be accessed through hearing. Sound is what is heard. The characteristics of sound include loudness and timbre. There are various causes of deafness to sounds. Deafness is more prominent in old people. Ringing occurs within the ears of deaf people. Ringing sound is what is recognized by deaf people before realizing their hearing loss. Noise exposure is believed to be the major source of hearing loss. <br />
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In conclusion, melody has much significance to deaf people. Deaf people perceive the ringing sound. This makes them communicate with the environment through melody of sounds. There are some deaf people who are capable of communicating through lip reading of spoken language. This is not widely applicable since there are few English words can be accessed from the lips. The use of sign language is common in people with hearing impairment.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-69630701654851567542017-07-02T05:25:00.004-07:002017-07-02T05:25:34.873-07:00Relationship between Family Structure and Delinquent BehaviorThe hypothesis that the authors were attempting to answer is that there exists a significant relationship between family structure and delinquent behavior. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis that the parental attachment factor of social control theory can clarify why children from non-traditional families are more likely to indulge delinquent acts than those from traditional, two parent homes.<br />
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The following are divisions of non-traditional family structure as independent variables intact (if both biological parents are present in the home), neither natural parent (if both biological parents are lacking), reconstituted (if one biological parent has been substituted by a step-parent) and single parent (if one biological parent is missing and has not been substituted), subdivided in to categories like age, sex and socioeconomic status while the dependent variables are delinquent behavior within the home, minor transgressions of the law and status offenses.<br />
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The study results show children from at least one of the three non-traditional family structures have a higher probability of being delinquent than those who come from intact homes. The most vulnerable type of family appears to be the one in which neither natural parent is present. Children from this group have the highest probability of committing any delinquent acts.<br />
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The conclusion in this study suggests that children from non-traditional family structures experience lower levels of parental attachment and this deficit in attachment leads to delinquent behavior. The results of this are suggestive rather than definitive. It is definitely necessary to replicate this study by means of a research design that can give a report on the possible existence of reciprocal relationships amongst variables and the possibility that spurious correlations were created by the omission of major variables from the causal model.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-61658199192180141482017-07-02T05:25:00.002-07:002017-07-02T05:25:13.850-07:00Research, Statistics and PsychologyResearch is an organized study, methodical investigation in to a subject in order to discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered. Research can also be defined as scientific investigation of alleged phenomena and events that appear to be unaccounted for by conventional physical, biological or psychological theories. The scientific research method is the means by which researchers put together conclusive and valid statements concerning a study they have done with a minimum of bias. Unfortunately data interpretation can be laden with bias.<br />
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The researcher often has personal stakes in the results of his conclusive statements and his work at large. For the purpose of minimizing the influence of personal stakes and biased opinions, a standard method of testing a hypothesis is to be used by all the members of the scientific community. The first step to using the scientific method is to have some basis for conducting your research which is based on observed phenomenon that is either directly or indirectly related to the specific subject matter of your proposed research. The second step is to form a hypothesis which will be used to explain some major aspects of your observations. You are now ready to test the hypothesis which you have formed. Your formed hypothesis will be used to predict other phenomena that have not yet been observed. The final step is to test your prediction. It should be noted that you cannot prove your hypothesis you can only fail to disprove it. While this is the way the scientific method is used in day to day research and hypothesis testing, it is also the basis of creating theories and laws. Most scientific methods in the present day require a hypothesis to be done away with if experiments repeatedly contradict the predictions made. A hypothesis may sound so great but it should be noted that any hypothesis is only as good as its ability to consistently predict experimental results. It should also be noted that a theory or hypothesis is not in any way meaningful if it is not quantitative and testable. Lakatos (1970) suggested that Kuhn (1970) was right to state that science does not progress by falsification. Lakatos proposed that theory tests are not two-cornered contests among competing theories and investigations. Some investigations result in confirmation rather than falsification. Lakatos proposed a scientific theory, T1, is falsified if, and only if, another theory, T2, has the following characteristics T2 predicts novel facts that are improbable for, even forbidden by, T1. Secondly, T2 explains the previous success of T1 that is, all the parts of T1 that have not been refuted are contained within T2 and finally some of the information in T2 exceeding that in T1 has been corroborated. The ultimate success of this approach of investigation is a sequence of problem-shifts of a series of theories T1, T2, T3 each having as much content as the un-refuted content of the previous one and differs from it by some additional proposition(s).<br />
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In comparison to Secondary data or second hand published data, Primary or first-hand data are very costly one reason is because primary data has never been gathered before. An advantage of primary data is you find the data you need to suit your purpose. Unfortunately because of the added expense associated with collection of primary data, there is no certainty that what is gained by way of improvement over secondary data sources is worth the added cost. A prior assumption of primary data supremacy are unwarranted poorly drawn samples, sampling errors, inadequate or poorly trained field workers, and poorly conceived schedules are among possible sources of error to balance against the possibilities of secondary data being inapplicable to a region. Using the primary research methods we note that focus groups bring together respondents with common characteristics and observations are actually made from viewing the respondents. Primary data makes it possible for the researcher to control variables and respondent groups as well as having one-on-one survey with respondents this increases the accuracy of the results in line with the current situations at the ground. On the other hand secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and particularly in the case of quantitative data, secondary data also provides larger and higher quality databases than would be difficult for any individual researcher to collect on their own. A number of analysts consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change andor development. The main purpose of both primary and secondary data is that they are collected and analyzed for the purpose of making valid inferences on the findings and eventually making sound decisions which solve the problem in question from the collected data.<br />
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Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which consists of univariate and multivariate procedures. Psychologists use univariate procedures in research when they measure one variable and multivariate procedure are used when multiple variables are used to determine the relationship between two or more variables, to derive the test statistic and to extract factors.<br />
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Statistics is used to describe data in terms of the shape, central tendency and dispersion of their frequency distributions and to make decisions about the properties of the statistical populations on the basis of sample statistics in research. Statistical decisions are made with reference to a body of theoretical distributions the distributions of a number of test statistics that are in turn derived from the appropriate sample statistic. A parameter is basically a property of the population, where as a statistic is just characteristic of the sample. A test statistic is an index derived from the sample statistic. The test statistic is used to make a statistical decision about the population in a given research. Statistics is divided in to two descriptive and inferential statistics. Psychologists use descriptive statistics to describe research data concisely. Psychologists apply inferential statistics to decide whether or not there is statistical significance with reference to a criterion value set in terms of the distribution of the test statistic.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-46009691796699663872017-07-02T05:24:00.004-07:002017-07-02T05:24:41.307-07:00Causes of depression The research paper mainly discuses the causes of depression among people. It reveals that even though depression is caused by several factors, most of them are associated with social aspects of an individual. Although the research paper argues that it is normal for low feeling to be experienced, it suggests that when such lows become persistent to an individual, he or she might be suffering from depression. This condition can also be caused by other factors such as financial strain, and hereditary and health factors.<br />
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Introduction<br />
Feelings of being down at times are normal and they are part of life. However, when despair and emptiness take hold of an individual and fail to disappear, possibly such an individual may be suffering from depression. More than the normal blues depression lows make it quite difficult for one to enjoy and function as he or she once did. Friends and hobbies fade away, one becomes exhausted virtually all the time, and hopelessness and despair feels the life of a depressed individual. Depression is caused by a wide range of factors including social, financial, and hereditary and health factors. However, depression is mainly caused by social factors as opposed to the other factors mentioned. Social life is a very essential part of every individual and thus when social life of a person is not normal, the individual is likely to be stressed and eventually suffer from depression (Belmonte, 2009).<br />
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Social causes of depression<br />
Loneliness is one of the major causes of depression. Lonely people have the propensity of taking extended periods of time pondering on negative issues. Such people develop a culture of perceiving things negatively as opposed to having a positive attitude towards different issues. Life as it is is made up of ups and downs. Ones ability to take advantage of the downs and conquer the ups is what eventually makes life fulfilling and worth living. However, lonely people are less likely to see opportunities arising within their environs and thus perceive literally everything badly. When lonely people go through such feelings for extended periods of time, they eventually become possessed by hopelessness, despair and emptiness and therefore end up suffering from depression (Price, 2004).<br />
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Social support is very essential to each and every human being it makes people feel liked, loved and wanted by others. Absence of social support is therefore a major cause of depression among people. When people are not supported socially, they tend to feel as if they are hated by others, they are not loved and that they are a burden to other people. They are also filled with feelings of worthlessness as they no longer value themselves. They perceive themselves to be less superior human beings and hence suffer from inferiority complex. Individuals who lack social support eventually become lonely since they avoid mixing with other people. When faced by various challenges do not seek help from others and instead prefer keeping everything to themselves. As a result, they accumulate significant stresses thus making themselves highly vulnerable to suffering from depression (WebMD, LLC, 2010).<br />
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A good number of people value relationships and marriages to the extent that issues related to these two aspects are reflected in most of their actions. Marital andor relationship problems are therefore a major cause of depression among people who are married or in love. People, who suffer from depression as a result of relationship or marital problems, are normally significantly affected by actions of their partners towards them. One may hold a firm belief that his or her partner cannot go against his or her will, wishes or what they have agreed among them. When one party breaks the commitment, it might greatly affect the other person to the extent that he or she feels greatly betrayed. There is a wide range of problems associated with marriages and relationships. In most cases they are brought about by one of the spouses and when he or she is not ready to solve them with the other party, the victim might result into loneliness and feelings of desperation and hopelessness which eventually lead to depression (Beck Alford, 2009).<br />
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The social life of an individual starts very early in life before building up to form a solid wall which makes someone to associate more freely with other people. However, there are some children who are rather unfortunate they are brought up in environments which expose them to intense abuse and trauma. This is yet another major cause of depression, which is socially inclined. Children who are exposed to abuse tend to develop certain tendencies of keeping everything to themselves and are thus more susceptible to suffering from depression. Their psychological growth and development is significantly affected by such environments. Such children do not grow and develop normally especially socially as they are filled with numerous fears they cannot get rid of since they do not know how they can (Price, 2004). <br />
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Hereditary and health factors<br />
At times, an individual can grow up normally without being exposed to stressful environments, and without being lonely or lacking any social support and still suffer from depression. In such a case, depression can be as a result of hereditary factors. Individuals can inherit genes from their parents which make them highly susceptible to suffering from depression. In this case, depression occurs naturally to an individual and there is less such a person can do to prevent it. However, he or she can seek proper medical attention which can greatly assist him in coping with the situation (Belmonte, 2009).<br />
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If a family has a history of suffering from depression, individuals from such a family will have a tendency of thinking they are depressed whenever they experience lows in life. Such modes of thinking can eventually make such people although naturally not suffering from depression to eventually suffer from it. They are also faced by stereotypes that are said about them every now and then by other people within their communities which make them, feel that they have a problem and hence cannot cope well with other people. People from such families may be faced by a normal problem which can be solved easily but due to their attitude towards life, they end up seeing the problem as enormous and unsolvable. As a result, they end up suffering from hopelessness and desperation which eventually makes them to be depressed (WebMD, LLC, 2010). <br />
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Health factors are yet other major causes of depression among people. Individuals depending on various factors such as social life, capacity to deal with challenges and their attitude towards life may respond differently when suffering from an illness. The major health factors which cause depression are terminal illness and chronic pain. People suffering from various terminal illnesses such as cancer may lose hope of ever living a normal life. Every time a new day comes it does not bring them any hope or value in their lives, but a source of worthlessness, desperation and emptiness. They spend a lot of time thinking about negative aspects of the diseases they are suffering from and they rarely see any positive thing in their desperate situation. They are aware that their death is very near, which is a major source of constant worry among them. Negative thoughts are usually the order of the day and they finally make them to suffer from depression (Price, 2004). <br />
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Most of the terminal illnesses make individuals suffer greatly from chronic pain. At the initial stages, pain resulting from these illnesses can be controlled medically. But as the disease progresses, chronic pain becomes unbearable. Such people end up experiencing significant pain which is beyond their control. Coupled with the fact that the terminal illness will claim their lives soon, this class of patients becomes very hopeless focusing their minds on only negative thoughts which make the situation worse. They are aware that the doctors are not capable of saving their lives making desperation to their greatest companion. Such patients get affected psychologically and their attitude towards life changes drastically, radically and completely for the worse. They end up losing or failing to appreciate all their friends, they no longer have hobbies and value nothing more that life offers. Their lives are filled with desperation, worthlessness and hopelessness, all of which make them to long for their death (WebMD, LLC, 2010). <br />
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Financial factors<br />
Having several financial responsibilities without a sound source of capital can lead to depression. People who are financially strained and have to meet certain financial obligations such as paying school fees for their children, hospital bills, house rent and other essential needs are vulnerable to suffering from depression. People straining financially may result to feelings of worthlessness. They feel that they are of much less value if they cannot be able to take good care of their families financial needs. Financially strained people usually become obsessed with negative thoughts that it is not possible for them to meet their financial needs like other people. They end up having a bad attitude towards life which make them less productive and thus earn less money hence worsening an already bad situation. If an individual is subjected to financial strains for extended periods of time, they are likely to suffer from depression (Beck Alford, 2009). <br />
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Underemployment or unemployment can also lead to depression among people. Unemployed individuals besides straining financially due to lack of an income source, they also have a lot of time to think negatively. Such thoughts eventually results into depression, they are likely to view their lack of employment as an indicator that they are less valuable and thus cannot offer good services to potential employers. Underemployment makes individuals to feel that they are being exploited because they are worthless. Most of the underemployed and unemployed people spend substantial amount of time pondering negatively. When such thoughts occupy ones life for extended periods of time, he or she is likely to become hopeless and suffer from depression (Belmonte, 2009).<br />
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Conclusion<br />
Depression is caused by several factors all of which have psychological effects on an individual. Most of the factors that cause depression are related to social aspects of an individual either directly or indirectly. Human beings are social animals and should thus remain as much social as possible. When the normal social aspects of an individual are affected, they are likely to become lonely and shy away from associating with other people. Such people develop a culture which makes them to have negative thoughts and attitudes in life which eventually make them hopeless and desperate. Other factors that make individuals to suffer from depression include financial problems, and health and hereditary factors.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-91196797210848197922017-07-02T05:23:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:23:54.274-07:00Effective Clinical Interventions Families Can Use When Dealing With StressClinical interventions towards managing family stress are of great importance. A number of them may be employed to manage stress in family which results from various stressors events. The need for family togetherness, understanding and support is also very vital. This paper explores into the clinical interventions that can be used by family in managing stress and how effective they are.<br />
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What is stress What are causes of stress<br />
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In day to day lives, people are faced by pressure and tension which is a result of what happens around them. In defining stress, Gerald (1994) asserts that any bodily or mental pressure and tension caused by physical, emotional and chemical factors can be termed as stress. Stress affects our emotions, mental condition and physical conditions<br />
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Causes of stress<br />
People suffer from various stresses which are caused by various events that one goes through in life. Stress can be caused by stressors in work place, ones social interactions with others, conflict between work and family responsibilities, diseases, traumatic experiences and physical environment. Domestic conflicts, losses, child abuse, diseases, parenting problems, children unappealing behaviors, high expectations may be the cause of stress in a family. Murders have also been identified as one of the causes of stress. Deaths, divorce, changes in jobs, new relocation as well as frightening experiences such as hospitalization and physical trauma usually results into stress. Stress may also be triggered by eventsepisodes such as loneliness, independence, sexuality, feeling overwhelmed by situation out of ones control and high expectations of either by oneself or by others. The need to employ available clinical interventions to manage the stress is therefore indispensable. (Gerald 1994)<br />
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Types of stress<br />
Stress is broadly defined into to two groups i.e. bad stress (distress) and good stress (eustress). Eustress is helpful since it occurs before one performs a certain duty. It enables one to be prepared physically, mentally and psychologically to achieve a certain objective. On the other hand distress, occurs when normal routine is adjusted or altered. Both the body and mind are affected. Other types of stress include acute stress which occurs as a result of immediate change of routine chronic stress which is as a result of constant routine change(s). It affects ones mind and body in long term period. (Gerald 1994).<br />
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Is Family Therapy an effective intervention in reducing stress<br />
Family therapy is one of approaches that a family can employ to treat stress. According to Diseth (2005), family therapy based on identifying and treating child with stress as early as possible is very effective. However family therapy requires to be combined with individual psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy. This will effectively handle dissociative disorders in children and adolescents. Family therapy application in treating stress will thus require to be combined other clinical interventions otherwise it may not result into desired outcomes.<br />
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Nixon etal 2003 in their work where twenty one years preschoolers were recruited as social validation comparison condition, reported that family therapy involving the standard parent- child interaction therapy (PCIT) for family with young conduct problem children, has some benefits. Since a child greatly trusts hisher parent, this approach may greatly work in treating stress associated with children.<br />
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A parent has a big role to play in eliminating stress in family set up. Before a parent can offer healthy support, guidance, and facilitate problem solving for effective coping, there is need to be at best. Heshe should start by understanding and assessing the stressor events. Stressors events variation is wide. Consideration for the type of stress should be preceded by the assessment or intervention in therapeutic work. Various facts such as the level of stress family member is experiencing, family perception of the problem, and strategies used to manage the stress by the family should be established. There is need to establish the source of the stressor. It should be established if the source is external or internal. Through such a guideline the family therapy will certainly achieve desirable results. (Sharon etal 2010)<br />
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Family therapy that emphasize in first identifying type of stress in terms of normative or nonnormative, duration and density of the stressor, the number of stressors the family is handling and how long the stress has been experienced has resulted to positive results. A questions about how many stressors has the family been handling simultaneously, can be of great help, in deciding on the clinical intervention to be employed while dealing with the stress at hand. Some stressors such as job loss, marital distress, financial strains, medical complications and unexpected pregnancy may occur simultaneously or consecutively in a family. Families simultaneously dealing with stressors are more vulnerable and more likely to experience negative symptoms. Family therapy based on such knowledge of the contextual circumstances surrounding them will be effective. (Sharon etal 2010)<br />
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There is need for defining relationship boundaries allowing individuality as well as the connectedness as far as family members are concerned. The family systems relationship boundaries should be made flexible, cloistered with support, warmth, and togetherness. On the other hand, ambiguity about family roles should be eradicated. This will ensure that every family member is responsible and available to perform hisher part.<br />
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For example, a parenting stress in the family may be solved through parental behavioral training. (P.B.T).This method calls for altering the behavior reinforcement. The parent needs to acquire new skills to assist him or her in parenting. These skills should be based on operant techniques. Skills taught include how to use contingent supervision strategies, including enforcing consistent rules, using developmentally appropriate responses and expectations and the importance of the positive reinforcement role. Parent may agree on contingency contract such as token economy. In this case the child who the parents are parenting is rewarded when heshe record good behaviors in terms of respectful behavior at school, at home, and early completion of homework and so on. Such a method has proved to be effective given that children are a bit nave. (Sharon etal 2010)<br />
Is a cognitive behavioral intervention an effective intervention reducing stress<br />
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Cognitive behavioral intervention include identifying potential cognitive distortions while at the same time reinterpreting the inaccurate perceptions as far as the stressor events is concern. Differently thinking about the stressor events will influence the behavior and emotions in the family. This intervention should emphasize in modifying victims cognition through collaborative empiricism (Epstein Baucom, 2002). In assessing this intervention various writers have different claims.<br />
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According to Kerr and Channen (2003), cognitive analytical therapy can also be employed by the family in dealing with stress. It is a useful approach and generates meaningful as well as helpful understanding of what context of stress for both the treating team and the patient.<br />
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De Vente 2008 claims that, cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) has been associated with great effectiveness in treating psychopathology. However this intervention success in treating patients with clinical levels of work-related stress has been wanting. In treating anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has been reported to be effective in short term and medium term. The self help approaches which are based on cognitive behavioral therapy principles also can be effective as far as stress management is concerned.<br />
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Family should work together with the therapist in examining the cognitive interpretation validity, how far the cognition reflects objective reality as well as the cognition adaptiveness for relationships in the family. The need to employ didactic approach will play a big role. Probing further into the cause of the problem, environment surrounding the stressors events and the main players will avail more information attributed to the stressor event. (Sharon etal 2010)<br />
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Is a mindfulness intervention an effective in reducing stress<br />
Allen etal (2006) claims that, therapeutic application of mindfulness is growing rapidly. Combining mindfulness approach to treating stress, with well developed conceptual model used in therapeutic action, mindfulness becomes an effective approach in treating not only stress, but also a wide range of physical and mental health problems.<br />
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Krasner etal (2004) reported that, there is an increasing in empirical medicine literature about mindfulness based interventions. Mindfulness empowers one to work with hisher stress, illness, demand for daily living and challenges. Mindfulness offers a true participatory as well as biopsychological oriented medicine thus enabling bidirectional healing to take place. Mindfulness intervention has been noticed to result into significant improvement to sleep disturbances, depression, parenting problem and personality disorder. <br />
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Taccin etal (2003) claimed that, a significant improvement was reported in mental adjustment, stress related factors, and locus of control to a group of 27 women who were suffering from breast cancer. Levels of anxiety were reported to decrease while positive mental adjustment increased significantly. The level of sense of helpless and hopelessness as well as anxious preoccupation was noted to diminish. This is a clear indication that mindfulness intervention has been effective as a clinical intervention to treating stress. Since mindfulness intervention emphasize on one acknowledging that there is a challenge, as well as a wise attention to the challenge without judging the present moment, its effectiveness can substantially be pleasant.<br />
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Baer (2003) claims that, mindfulness skills towards clinical interventions have become popular method of managing stress in the family. Mindfulness involves bringing ones attention to the internal and external experiences occurring in the present moment, and is often taught through a variety of meditations exercises.(p125). Mindfulness training is a clinical intervention whose use is growing rapidly.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
Various clinical interventions may be used to treat stress by a family. These methods include the cognitive approach, mindfulness based intervention, family therapy and affirmation. Their effectiveness depends on the stress they are treating, the patient perception and factors surrounding the stressors event.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-63773174622235903292017-07-02T05:22:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:22:18.349-07:00Drug related problems are the major issues that many people are grappling with in an attempt to get out of this bondage. Most people can not work unless they are under the influence of a drug. Some people have to take a glass of alcohol to gain confidence. Others have to take a smoke to avoid experiencing headaches.<br />
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In all the corners of the world, the problem of drug and substance abuse is so prevalent among the children, the youths and the old. The most abused drug though in most of the societies is alcohol. It is taken in many instances as a way of celebrating certain achievement or when having merry. Most of the time it is taken as a complement to meal.<br />
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The following discussion however will focus on the abuse of alcohol and other drugs among the Native Americans.<br />
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Purpose of the paper<br />
The main purpose of this paper is look at the whole issue of drug and alcohol abuse among the Native Americans. It is going to be focusing on the problems that occur as a result of misusing alcohol and other drugs. It will focus on the addiction, the withdrawal effects of the drugs and eventually look at the possible treatments that can be used to help those that are already affected by the whole issue of drugs. It will also seek to provide certain measures that should be employed so as to prevent those that are already not using the drugs against recruitment. Finally, the paper will also focus on the group of the people on the society who are the most affected by the drugs and alcohol abuse and for our case we focus on the Native American youths.<br />
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Discussion<br />
Prevalence of alcohol among the Native American youths<br />
Drug and alcohol abuse is so prevalent among the young people especially those high schools and the campus. This is the reason why I have chosen to choose this particular population so that we can see how the alcohol related problems are having negative impacts on this very important population in the society.<br />
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Most Native American youths will involve themselves in drugs to overcome the stresses of life, inferiority complex and cultural conflict ( Native American Development Corporation, 1990a).It is the study that was carried on the effect of alcohol on Native young people in America. The results of the study indicated that underage drinking was on the rise with people aged between 12-20 years accounting for more than ten million drinkers in America (National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1999). The report continues to indicate that out of this, about twenty percent engage in binge drinking and about six percent are heavy drinkers.<br />
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The research indicates that the average age of drinking among the young people is thirteen years. About eighty percent of the high school going students have engaged in drinking with about sixty two percent getting drunk and becoming a nuisance to the rest of the members of the society (Monitoring the Future Study, 2000). The girls according to the study have not been speared either. The percentage of those who abuse the alcohol has been rising with the findings indicating a thirty one percent rise in the 1990s from seven percent in the 60s (Substance Abuse Among Women in the U.S. 1996). The study continues to reveal that since many teenager are engaged in binge drinking and sometimes heavy drinking, about sixteen percent of these have had a black out. It is reported that most of them could not tell what had happened to them the previous time as they had lost their conscience (Teen Alcohol Consumption 1998). The act of drinking has been linked to the easy accessibility of alcohol among the young people. It has been noted that young people will purchase alcohol without any one considering that they are underage. This has been seen as the main reason that is encouraging the escalation of this problem (Waggener, Alexander C, 2000).<br />
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This study also focused on the devastating effects of the alcohol related problems on the young people and came with a number of them. One of the shocking consequences is that alcohol has been identified as one of the four causes of deaths among the young people who are aged between ten to around twenty four (. Kann, L., et al. 2000). Others that were identified as the causes of death were accidents caused in many instances by the drivers who are under the influence of alcohol, the other one is suicide which is associated with lack of strong social ties which leads to the feeling of hopelessness. Drinking of alcohol and other drugs causes some one to lose many important friends and this feeling of loneliness and the fact that some have been deprived of the love of their parents makes most of them opt to commit suicide.<br />
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It has been indicated that those who begin taking alcohol at the age of fifteen years will be at a higher risk of developing drug dependency than their counterparts who begin at a later age of about twenty one (Grant, B.F., Dawson, D. A. 1997). Therefore, this shows that the best way to prevent the effect of drug dependence is to ensure that the younger generation is not exposed to early drinking as this will lead to devastating problems in future.<br />
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There are also greater chances of the people who begin drinking at the age of fifteen years to use other illicit drugs. The percentage of these young people has been estimated to be sixty two. Most of them are seven times likely to use illicit drugs, with over twenty two percent using marijuana and more than fifty percent using cocaine (Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). This is a number that is way higher than the number of those who do not engage in early use of alcohol.<br />
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The possibility of a teenager who is under the influence of alcohol to engage in irresponsible sexual activities has also been found to be very high. The research indicates that about thirty nine percent of the teens who are sexually active have had sexual intercourse with four or more multiple partners (Costs of Underage Drinking, 1999). This is dangerous since it may expose them to higher risks of acquiring sexually transmitted infection since in many times this people might ignore the importance of having to use protection when having sex. However, those young people who delay drinking have again been found to have fewer chances of experiencing such problems.<br />
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The cost of underage drinking in America has been soaring. The study shows that it costs the government about fifty billion dollars annually on the problems associated with Underage Drinking 1999). This is a lot of cost and such huge figure should be used in other sectors of the economy that are satisfying to all the citizens. This tells us that there is a great need to address this problem otherwise many nations will be losing their national income on matters related to drugs rather than focusing on the most important issues.<br />
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The problems that many young people are also contending with include the sexual assaults and acquaintance or date rape cases which are on the rise among the young. The research indicates that the two evils are propagated by the use of alcohols (Youth and Alcohol, 1992). It has been found that many ladies have reported to have been raped by their boy friends when they were having the date.<br />
The last finding of the research indicates that in 1999, about twenty one percent of the accidents that were reported involved drivers who were aged fifteen and twenty (Traffic Safety Facts, 1999). Many of the lives of young people are lost annually due to the act of driving under the influence of alcohol. It is therefore necessary that the relevant authority take measures aimed at address these problems.<br />
Effects of drugs and alcohol among the Native American young generation<br />
The effects of alcohol and other related drugs on the life of the young people affect their social life, their cognitive abilities and their emotional lives. In other words it affects all the sectors of their lives and this is very dangerous. We focus on the Nancys story as a guide to make a generalized situation of the Native American youths.<br />
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One of the major effects of drugs and alcohol is that it may cause relational breakdown. As the young person begins to use the alcohol, this will begin having impact on their behavior. This on the other hand will affect the way they will begin conducting themselves in the presence of their friends. Since most of them may lose their judgment and the power of decision making, they may end up doing acts that are quite embarrassing. For this reason, they will be avoided by their friends who will not want to suffer the embarrassment.<br />
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The other effect of drugs among the young people is the one we have briefly seen in our literature review above. As we saw, the influence of alcohol will make the young people become irresponsible and may indulge themselves in behaviors that are life threatening. As we saw in Nancys case, she got drunk one day causing an accident that harmed other people and herself. They may also have unprotected sex with multiple partners and this poses great threat to their lives and lives of others. Even as many organizations and governments are trying to come with various measures meant at mitigating the spread of sexually transmitted infections, this may not be fully achieved if the problem of the drugs and alcohol prevalence among the young is not addressed. The spread of HIV and AIDs will therefore be soaring among the young generation if this trend is not checked.<br />
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The other effect of using alcohol especially at an early age is that it may lead someone to using other dangerous drugs such as the cocaine and the heroine (Monitoring the Future Study, 2000) As we saw in the hypothetical story above, Nancy used marijuana while she was fifteen years but later on she is observed to use the alcohol. This is because as one continues using a certain drug for a long time they become used to it until it has no satisfying effects as they would want. This will therefore make them decide to use a harder drug that will keep them high. This poses a lot of threat to them as they become so intoxicated to the point of losing their consciousness and the result is medication or being taken to the rehabilitation centers.<br />
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Another effect is that it may lead to violent behaviors that may be life threatening causing injury to others. In our hypothetical story above, Nancy has been hurt by her husband who causes some head injuries to her as he hit her with a hammer. This culminated into him being taken to the prison. Domestic violence is also high in many other homes where one or both of the partners are using alcohol. These leads to many unwanted expenses such as the medical bills and also payment of the destroyed properties. As we have seen in the case above, the relationship between the husband and the wife is also broken and they live in their different worlds. This challenges the need for marriage in the first place.<br />
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The next effect as we have seen in the case of Nancy is the possibility of being involved in accidents. We are told that she was driving under the influence of alcohol which led to the unexpected death of two people. Even by going by the research that we saw earlier, the number of accident that is caused by people who work under the influence of alcohol is on the rise. This could be attributed to the fact that some of them drink to the point of not being in control of themselves such that they cannot control the vehicle effectively. This does not affect only them but other people also who could be pedestrians or other drivers. Those taking other drugs such as the marijuana will find themselves hallucinating and they forget that they are on the road. This poses greater challenge to their lives.<br />
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The next effect is that it may lead to robbery in order for these drug users to acquire the money that is meant to meet their daily needs. Some of these drugs are quite expensive. Since these drug users have developed some kind of dependency on them, they cannot do without having to test them. As we saw earlier, some of these people do not work yet they want to maintain their high state. This means that they have o look for a way of maintaining this state. In most of the time, they will cause disharmony in the society by mugging people and taking their money so as to be in a position to acquire the drugs.<br />
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Impact of drugs and alcohol on the Native Americans<br />
According to the information brief on the illicit drugs and the youth, the impact of drug is very great on the parents, school, the community and the government (judgment.govndic).<br />
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According to that research, the trend of drug use among the young people is on the rise and this is affecting not only them but the whole society in general. The issue of the drug use among the young is therefore one that needs to be taken seriously by all the necessary authority and not left to the government alone or the parents but the community in general should be involved in rooting out this evil.<br />
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The impact of the use of drugs among the young is what we saw earlier. The government of America spends about fifty billion dollars annually in treating the problems that arise as a result to the involvement of drugs (Grant, B.F., Dawson, D. A. 1997). This is a lot of money that is supposed to be used in other helpful projects that are meant to stimulate development. However, each year the government has been required to set aside this huge amount to deal with this problems. This will mean that the people will be expected to pay higher taxes so that such expenses can be met.<br />
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The other place that feels the impact is the hospitals that are required to nurse the injuries that this people may acquire in case of accidents. As we saw, the numbers of accidents are so high that there are so many young people that have to be taken to the hospital. As a result, this makes the facilities in the hospital get exhausted. The nurses are put under pressure and therefore the government on the other hand must continue employing more and more to cater for this problems.<br />
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On the other side, young people have been known to vandalize the properties when they are drunk and when they are under the influence of drugs. This has been witnessed in many high schools and even campuses. The students will just go into riot citing many unfounded reasons for their decision but in the real sense, the root cause of this n many times is the influence of the drugs. When such evils take place, they break properties or burn them. The cost of this is incurred by the government together with the parents therefore continuing to put more and more pressure on the society.<br />
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The other impact has been felt on the side of the parents. They are the people who have to be keeping the eye on their children and they expect them to be responsible people in the society. However, in many cases this does not happen. These youths may never live their lives to full potentials. This is one of the problems that many of the parents are grappling with. Each parent would want to see their children succeed in their academic work, social life and generally lead a responsible life.<br />
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In our earlier study, we saw very young teenagers being involved in drinking of alcohol. This leads us to ask ourselves such as who provides the money that they have to use on the drugs bearing in mind that most of them are not employed. This means that they must be getting this money from their parents. However, it will be so hard for a parent to give money to their children for buying drugs. Since they have to keep on using these drugs as we saw earlier, this means that they must come up with means of acquiring them. One of the ways is to steal from their parents. They may take the cash that their parents keep in the house meant for other expenses.<br />
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The other possible mean of getting this cash will be through diverting money meant for other expenses and using it to fulfill their need for the drugs. For instance, a student may be given some cash meant for buying themselves cloths. They will however not do so but will take this money and use it.<br />
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The other impact is found at the society in general. This is the people that surround and live among the young people. Rape cases at times are associated with the use of drugs. This poses a great threat to the society in general and tries to avoid any contact with these youths as they can. Date rapes are also reported to be on high, but this mostly goes unreported. This is because it is hard for one to prove that the one that they love actually raped them. People under the influence of drugs might not reason with their partners. When they say no, these people under the influence of alcohol may interpret it as meaning yes. In many times, the will be forcing themselves and would not listen to their partners.<br />
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As we saw earlier on, the society also plays a part in influencing the young people to use the drugs (Grant, B.F., Dawson, D. A. 1997).This is demonstrated by the fact that these people purchase the drugs from shops that are owned by mature people who should discourage this kind of behavior. Therefore it is up to the society to decide also whether they want a drug free society or they want to continue contending with great risks that will come as a result of drug abuse among the young.<br />
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Treatment Options for Targeted Population<br />
It has been found so challenging to treat people with drug problems. This is because in many times they are not willing to own that they have a problem. Among the Native Americans, the definition of alcohol makes the whole difference since some do not perceive it as a problem (Department of Educations Drug-Free Schools and Communities 1988-90). The first step in many times of helping a person with a problem is for them to agree that they have a problem which needs intervention.<br />
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There are however several ways that have been suggested that are aimed at helping these addicted people come out of such situations. One of those ways is for the young person to get involved in certain other distracting activities. Such activities will include going out for the exercises such as jogging, watching of movies, and reading interesting novels. These activities are meant to keep them away from the thought of drugs.<br />
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The other factor to treating this problem is to break the relationship with the old friends who are still under the influence of alcohol (helpguide.org). Most people who are in drugs it is because they are dragged into that by their friends. Therefore keeping away from them breaks the pressure.<br />
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The other one is to avoid visiting places such as the bars and the restaurants. This will help the young person not get tempted into falling prey of the alcohol related problems. Finally, the person could strive to create strong bonds with the parents and other close friends who they will become accountable to. Family therapy is very powerful when it comes to the changes of behavior. Parents on the other side should avoid being too harsh and judgmental and express unconditional love to their children and with time there is hope that though they are addicted, they will recover.<br />
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Barriers to Successful Treatment for Targeted Person<br />
It is however at times difficult to treat people who are suffering from drug related problems as we have seen above. This is owing to the fact that the alcohol or the drugs may alter the mind functions. Reconstructing this becomes one of the major problems. However, treatment can still occur even under this, but certain myths and misconceptions have to be dealt with. There are those people who believe that when you are addicted there is nothing that you can do about it. However, this is not the case so long as the person has the will power, then they will get help.<br />
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Others feel that since they trying fighting for the problem and it is not improving then there is no way they can recover. However it is great to note recovery is a process that may take many days and even months but the end results will be positive.<br />
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The other reason why people may not get help is because of the belief that treatment is personal. It has been found that the involvement of parents and the legal systems can also assist them in recovering.<br />
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Considerations for RehabilitationCommunity Counselors<br />
There are times when helping these young people who are so much affected to the point of addiction recover. When that point comes, most of the family members feel hopeless and helpless. However, this is not the end of everything. The person could be referred to the counselors who will be seeking to know the root cause of the problem. They are very helpful since they reason with the young people and are able to analyze their minds to know whether the problem is genetic or it is as a way to avoid certain realities in life.<br />
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The whole of this counseling session could be carried on from the rehabilitation centers depending on the damage caused by the effects of the drugs. The main importance of the rehab is that they are kept away from the reach of the drugs that they have been abusing. This will daily enable them begin recovering and coming back to the normal situation.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
The prevalence of drugs among the Native American young people is wide and it cannot be ignored. The effects of this problem are so fatal not only to he lives of this young people but to others as well. The impact is also so high on the government, parents and the community at large. The issue is therefore a matter of the whole nation to come together in order to mitigate it.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-74340288970035642242017-07-02T05:19:00.003-07:002017-07-02T05:19:57.570-07:00Exercise, Anxiety, and DepressionInstitutional Affiliation Exercise, Anxiety, and Depression<br />
Over the years, exercise has been linked to improved moods of patients specifically anxiety and depression. There are models developed to explain how exercise improves peoples mood. Physiologic changes thought to be brought about by exercise are explained in the hyperthermic model and the endorphin hypothesis. Improved moods caused by changes in the psychological state after exercise are also illustrated in models that discuss self esteem and mastery explanations and the distraction hypothesis (Daley, 2002).<br />
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Many researchers have dedicated their time and effort to finding evidences to support the thesis that exercise reduces anxiety and depression. The type of exercise that research studies correlate with the reduction of depression and anxiety symptoms involves the use of the bodys muscular strength, flexibility, and cardiovascular endurance (Stuart Laraia, 2005). Providing sufficient empirical proof to this thesis will significantly benefit stakeholders of the healthcare system. Not only will it lower the costs of treating mental health problems such as depression and anxiety, but it will also contribute to the research and development of nonpharmacologic interventions used to treat these problems. As such, this paper aims to provide a systematic review of literature supporting the thesis that there is a relationship between exercise and a resulting reduction in anxiety and depression.<br />
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Review of Literature and Discussion<br />
In a fact sheet released by the University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC, n.d.), they discussed how exercise leads to improvements in a persons mood and development of a sense of well-being. They provided information based on researches on how exercise makes anxious people feel relaxed.<br />
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Supporting details include statements that both single sessions and regular exercise reduce anxiety. Furthermore, exercise was shown to have greater beneficial effects in people clinically diagnosed with anxiety disorders. They also provided statements that summarize research results suggesting that exercise reduces depression. Researches showed that both aerobic and anaerobic exercises pull out a person from a depressed mood. Likewise, exercise is shown to have an antidepressant effect on patients diagnosed with depression (UCSC, n.d.).<br />
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In a research article by Hamer, Stamatakis, and Steptoe (2009), they concluded that engaging in any physical activity for at least 20 minutes per week results in lesser risk of having pyschological distress. In this research, they surveyed 19,842 men and women who came from the Scottish Health Survey as participants. They measured the psychological distress of the participants through the use of the General Health Questionnaire wherein a score of 4 or more indicates psychological distress. Measure of physical activity per week was obtained through logistic regression model calculations. Based on their results, it was suggested that higher levels of physical activity will result in higher reduction of psychological distress (Hamer et al., 2009).<br />
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A similar study conducted by a group of doctors revealed that aerobic exercise at a dose consistent with public health recommendations is an effective treatment for MDD major depressive disorder of mild to moderate severity and a lower dose is comparable to placebo effect (Dunn, Trivedi, Kampert, Clark, Chambliss, 2005, p. 1). One of the four randomized groups in this study was exposed to an aerobic exercise treatment plan which used the recommended standard for physical activity while others were exposed to either a lower exercise regimen or placebo control. Outcomes were measured through scores generated from the 17- item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (Dunn et al., 2005).<br />
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Numerous research studies provide data that compare the anxiety levels and depressed state of an exercise group and a no-treatment control group. Their data suggest that the exercise groups have less anxiety and depression than the control groups. In this line, a recent study used control and experiment groups to identify effectiveness of exercise in reducing depressive symptoms of participants aged 18 to 23 years old. In order to compare the difference of results between groups, they used a pre-testpost-test method wherein the participants answered the Beck Depression Inventory before and after the 5-week exercise regimen. In addition to this, they obtained saliva samples for DNA analysis. Based on their results, it was suggested that the mechanism with which exercise produces reduction in symptoms of depression is likened to the effects of selective serotonin uptake inhibitors, a type of a pharmacologic antidepressant. This strengthens the idea that exercise should be legitimately used for the treatment of depression (Rethorst, Landers, Nagoshi, Ross, 2009).<br />
<br />
In another research study, participants with symptoms of anxiety were engaged in a 2- week exercise treatment plan where outcomes were assessed prior, during, and after the exercise regimen. Results showed that exercise reduced anxiety sensitivity which leads to alleviation of the depressed and anxious mood (Smits et al., 2008).<br />
<br />
Some research studies also employed methods of self-report from participants regarding their physical activity and mental health through the use of questionnaires. In a study conducted by De Moor, Beem, Stubb, Boomsma, and De Geus (2006) among families with adolescent and adult twins in Netherlands, their research findings concluded that regular exercise is associated with lower neuroticism, anxiety and depression and higher extraversion and sensation seeking in the population (p. 273).<br />
<br />
In a prospective research study, it was concluded that there is a two-way relationship between exercise and depression. This indicates that higher levels of physical activity reduce depression while depression reduces levels of physical activity in the future. This implies that interventions should be directed at increasing physical activity among populations that are most at risk of developing depressive symptoms (Jerstad, Boutelle, Ness, Stice, 2010). A prospective research study may not be as good as a randomized clinical trial, but its yielded results are still reliable. However, one possible limitation of this study is that participant responses may have been affected since the study was conducted over a long period of time. Events that may affect any aspect of a persons life may also affect their response in the study such as pregnancy, death, etc.<br />
<br />
There are also a number of research studies dedicated in providing support to the thesis by employing a method of review analysis of research articles. In line with this, a group of researchers did a systematic review of 40 scholarly journal articles (1995- 2007) about the sedentary lifestyle of chronically ill patients. Meta- regression analysis was employed and it was concluded that exercise reduces the symptoms of anxiety in chronically- ill patients who live a sedentary lifestyle (Herring, OConnor, Dishman, 2010).<br />
<br />
Another systematic review of related research articles was conducted in 2007 and 2008 which concluded that exercise reduces symptoms in clients with depression. The group reviewed research articles which contained randomized clinical trials that observed effects of exercise on experiment and controlplacebo group. They also suggested that more systematic reviews should be conducted to determine effect of exercise in people who manifest depression but are not clinically diagnosed with depression (Mead et al., 2008).<br />
<br />
A Polish research article discussed meta-analyses of both experimental and correlational studies that showed reductions in anxiety and depression in both healthy and clinical patients after aerobic exercises are performed in a specific period of time. It explained that this effect of exercise in the alleviation of moods is associated with the theories relating physiologic releases of endorphins and monoamines (Guszkowska, 2004).<br />
<br />
Summary and Critique<br />
There are available recent evidences that can best support the thesis that there is a connection between exercise and a resulting reduction in anxiety and depression. The availability of methodologically sound researches and high-level evidence-based studies indicates that there are strong and reliable bases for the thesis. This also supports the idea that research and evidence aid in the implementation of new innovative techniques in treating health problems, in this case, exercise for the reduction of anxiety and depression. <br />
<br />
The strength of the research studies discussed is its quality of evidence base. Two of the first five research studies cited are randomized clinical trials while the other two are quasi-experiments. In the hierarchy of evidence-based studies, randomized clinical trials and quasi-experiments are high up in the evidence pyramid (SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 2004). This indicates that empirical proofs to this thesis are highly recommended evidence bases. It is commendable that their methods involved field-testing of exercise and the pretest-posttest assessment of the mental health status of the participants. In comparison to merely asking or surveying people regarding their physical activity, engaging the participants in an actual exercise program is a better way of finding out the results.<br />
<br />
The actual field-testing of the exercise variable increases the likelihood that people will believe the results of the research. People learn more from lived experience rather than just theoretical learning, for example, books or journals. Ideally, the target audience of these studies is the general population who need to be encouraged to include exercise in their daily routine because it helps reduce anxiety and depression. Hence, studies should be able to communicate this with the larger population who do not understand scientific jargons and tend to only believe what they see or what they can relate with. In this case, people who can testify that they actually engaged in an exercise program that resulted in their improved mood are something that the general population can relate with. Therefore, it is easier to convince people that the health action can really lead to improved health outcomes.<br />
<br />
The significance of a study justifies that a study is ethical to conduct. It can be assumed that the significance of these studies focus on proving that exercise can reduce anxiety and depression for both healthy and ill people to the alleviate the conditions. In effect, the idea of exercise as a health promoting activity to prevent anxiety and depression was also addressed in these research studies. This is a good outcome of the researches because at present, efforts are pushed toward health promotion and disease prevention instead of waiting for the disease before treating it. Though there are still arguments and conflicts among researchers about the legitimacy of exercise in reducing anxiety and depression, this new theory about exercise already encourages people in engaging in a healthy habit.<br />
<br />
Based on the studies discussed, one common potential limitation of these research studies is patient-response bias in answering the self-report questionnaires used to assess the mental health status of the participants. This is due to the possibility that patients may not truly reflect their personality or behaviors in the questionnaires. They may choose an answer that reflects what they want themselves to be or to do rather than what they are doing in reality. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that these tools are valid and has high sensitivity to screening depression (Lincoln, Nicholl, Flannanghan, 2003). Hence, this limitation is only part and partial of the overall studies. <br />
<br />
Another potential limitation is the representativeness of the number of samples used in these research studies. Getting a large number of participants in a research study is very difficult. Hence, most research studies use a small number of samples to generate data from. This makes it difficult to apply to the general population the conclusions drawn from the studies. This is one possible aspect in researches that needs improvement. In order to have legitimate and reliable claims, data should not only produce good statistical data regarding the variables involved but also present a large proportion of the population to whom the study was conducted.<br />
<br />
Some of the research evidences also mentioned include systematic reviews and meta-analyses. These are ways to determine the quality use of the best current evidence and these two are the topmost in the evidence pyramid (SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 2004). It is good to know that recent systematic reviews suggested and supported the thesis that exercise reduces symptoms of anxiety and depression. This strengthens the stance that there is an existing relationship between exercise and a resulting improved mood. This is also an indicator that previous researches provide sufficient support to this thesis. However, a possible limitation that should be considered here is selection bias of research articles included in the systematic review. It is best to increase the number of researches reviewed in proportion to all recent research articles published regarding this thesis in order to eliminate selection bias.<br />
<br />
The researches discussed contribute in building a more convincing assertion for the thesis. They may have their own scope and limitations but a combination of previous and recent researches lead to a stronger foundation for theories that are not yet scientifically proven.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-19788406568653292862017-07-02T05:18:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:18:30.553-07:00Autism (A psychological disorder)This article supports a theory which explains autism, a mental disorder. Indicators of Autism will be discussed in detail in this paper. According to American Psychological Association (APA), Autism can be analyzed in two stages and those 2 stages will also be discussed later. Experiments which had been done on the Autistic person and the researches on Autism will also be discussed later.<br />
<br />
About autism, it had been observed that it is usually found in children, at the early stages of their lives. It appears mostly within the first 3 years of life. Autism is known as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in the medical world. Autism is also known as Brain development disorder. An Autistic person behaves in a different manner as compared to normal person. He faces numerous difficulties in his daily life, especially when he comes into changeable and uncertain environments.<br />
<br />
Autism may be from the birth of child or may be visible in early years of hisher life. Autism is a disorder which mainly affects the working of the mind. It is an obstacle in the development of mind. Social interaction and communication skills are affected by Autism. People affected by Autism face problem in verbal and non-verbal communication. They also experience problem in communicating ideas and feelings, imagination, social interaction and leisure or play activities.<br />
<br />
It is analyzed by the American Psychological Association (APA) that 1 out of 166 births is affected by this disorder. On the basis of this analysis it can be stated that at present 1.5 million Americans are suffering from autism. The effect of autism is consistent around the globe. Boys are four times more affected by this than girls. Racial, ethnic, or social boundaries cannot bound autism. Family income, lifestyle, and educational levels cannot change the effect of autism. It is free from all these things. <br />
<br />
Certain set of behaviors are used for defining autism spectrum disorder (ASD). There are many indicators for identifying ASD. Public Health Training Network Webcast defined some indicators.<br />
<br />
These indicators are-<br />
Does not babble, point, or make meaningful gestures by 1 year of age<br />
Does not speak one word by 16 months<br />
Does not combine two words by 2 years<br />
Does not respond to name<br />
Loses language or social skills<br />
<br />
Poor eye contact, Doesnt seem to know how to play with toys, Excessively lines up toys or other objects, Excessively lines up toys or other objects, Is attached to one particular toy or object, and Doesnt smile are some other indicators of ASD. ASD is first time detected by the parents of the child. This is noticed by the different kind of behavior of child. Thats why General Physicians or the Pediatricians notice early behavior of the child.<br />
<br />
This disorder is analyzed in two stages.<br />
In first stage childs behavior is analyzed by the pediatrician. This analysis is done by the observations given by the parents.<br />
<br />
In second stage analysis is done by the team of psychologist, a neurologist, a psychiatrist, a speech therapist, or other professionals for identifying ASD.<br />
<br />
Earlier it had been thought that autistic children face difficulty in interpreting state of mind on the basis of facial expression. But American Psychological Association (APA) did an experiment over 18 autistic children of the age between 10 to 14 years. Some images, in which facial expression was static or freeze, had been shown to those children. Most of them were not able to interpret the state of mind on the basis of static facial expression. But they were able to do that when animated or dynamic imaged had been shown. It signifies that autistic children can understand mental states when information is conveyed by eyes and mouth.<br />
<br />
A protein, carnosine is attracting many researchers towards the study of Autism. An experiment had been done on 31 autistic children. In which those children had been given a synthetic form of carnosine, called L-carnosine for 8 weeks. After 2 weeks an improvement was found that in those autistic children. There was some improvement in their communication ability, recognizing power and eye contact. There were improvements in communication and behavior of 60 children and 27 were now more socialized. It was the result of this experiment.<br />
<br />
I support these experiments and researches. A better care and good treatment could be the tools to close this mental illness. Now days a small but an important portion of world population, is facing this problem. Efforts had been made in this direction and lots of efforts are being made in this field by many countries. Movies and documentaries based on autism have been released recently to make the world aware about this disorder. It is going to become a big research field during the coming days. Research on autism has begun to explain the causes, remedies and caution related with this mental disorder.<br />
<br />
Experiments and researches have been done at every level. Next few years will bring further expansion in this biological field. Experiments and researches which had been done in this field will definitely be useful in future for further research in this field.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-90805458577071300112017-07-02T05:03:00.000-07:002017-07-02T05:03:38.784-07:00Development of CRIS Measures of Community Reintegration of Injured Service Members There are no existing measures of reintegration for injured service members. Some measures are too narrow and unable to cover the aspects or dimensions of community reintegration. Others are too broad by covering two or more dimensions of integration and preventing the assessment of these dimensions as individual constructs. In developing a measure for community reintegration of injured service members, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) developed by the World Health Organization was the basis. The ICF defined community reintegration in terms of participation in the community measured through these nine dimensions learning and applying knowledge general tasks and demands communication mobility self-care domestic life interpersonal relationships major life areas and community, social and civic life (Resnik, Plow Jette, 2009, p. 470).<br />
<br />
In adopting these dimensions, two areas were considered. One is functioning and disability specifically assessed through body functioning, structure, activities and participation, with activities and participation merged by not including simple tasks in the measure. The other is contextual considerations pertaining to personal and external environmental factors.<br />
<br />
To rationale of the current study is to develop a community reintegration measure for those returning with injuries from serving in Iraq. The outcome supports the evaluation of the reintegration of returning service members in the community to determine reintegration problems for individuals in a timely manner and respond to these problems in a timely manner. The results of the study also fill the gap in measures for community reintegration of injured service personnel.<br />
<br />
The purpose of the study is two-fold. One is to create a reintegration measure for returning service members with injuries with focus on participation. The other is to test CRIS in terms of the reliability and validity of the measure. <br />
<br />
The research question, which is implied from the purpose of the study, covered the basis or source of the new community reintegration measure as well as the reliability and validity of the measure. There was no clear mention of the hypotheses of the study in the introduction.<br />
<br />
Evaluation<br />
The theoretical background presented in the study is relevant with the ICF comprising the basis of the new community reintegration measure. The dimensions of reintegration based on the ICF also served as a definition of reintegration. An entire section explained the concept of participation, which is one of the dimensions of reintegration. This indicated the focus on participation in measuring community reintegration. There was no theoretical or conceptual discussion of the other dimensions of reintegration. <br />
<br />
Indication of the lack of community reintegration measures for injured service personnel justified the need for the study. The study addressed this gap by developing a new measure of community reintegration and testing the measure on injured returning service personnel.<br />
<br />
The objectives were clearly identified and set out in the introduction section. The two objectives were numbered and explained in the purpose of the study.<br />
<br />
The research question was not explicitly identified. This was implied from the rationale and purpose of the study. There was also no discussion of the hypotheses or expected outcomes in the introduction. There were not identifiable by reading the introduction section alone.<br />
<br />
Methods<br />
Summary<br />
There were two groups of participants in the study. The first group comprise of veterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) (Resnik et al., 2009). In the two pilot studies, the veteran participants were selected through convenience sampling from those obtaining services from Providence VA Medical Center (PVAMC). The veterans provided data on the three dimensions comprising the measure and the resulting measure was tested on veterans. Nevertheless, efforts were made to represent employment, domestic roles and other factors. The second group comprise of professional caregivers and clinicians (Resnik et al., 2009), which were impliedly selected via purposive sampling, to have respondents representing physical and mental health care, with significant experience of cases of returning service personnel. These respondents provided feedback during the formative stage of the study.<br />
<br />
Interview was the data collection instrument during the formative stage of the research. The interviews of veterans, caregivers and clinicians targeted the identification of community reintegration problems of injured veterans. The interview responses identified problems categorized under frequency of participation, perceived limitations in participation, and satisfaction with participation (Resnik et al., 2009, p. 471). The interview resulted to the intended outcomes reflecting on the validity of the instrument. These items were translated into a comprehensive questionnaire used as the other data collection instrument in the pilot studies. The testing of the measure indicated significant reliability between the results of the two pilot studies. The assessment of the instrument also showed significant content, construct, convergent and discriminant validity (p.476) as determined by face validity and Rasch residual factor analysis (Resnik et al., 2009.<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
Positivism is the research paradigm used to define the parameters of the study. The purpose is to create and test a community integration measure for service veterans. This required systematic data providing a scientific explanation of the phenomenon studied (Creswell, 2003). Although the measure was intended to reflect the perspective of veterans and apply to measures to them, the study and the research process are systematic. The study also tested the ICF constructs and the hypotheses on the expected outcomes of the instrument testing.<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
The study employed a mixed research design combining qualitative and quantitative research (Creswell, 2003). The formative stage is a qualitative study by interviewing veterans, caregivers and clinicians. The two pilot studies and the testing of CRIS scales were quantitative by using questionnaire responses analyzed quantitatively to determine reliability and validity.<br />
<br />
The study was done in three stages. In the formative stage, the research collected data on the reintegration issues, focusing on participation. These issues were classified into three dimensions of participation. Within these dimensions are sets of questions formed into a single questionnaire. The first pilot study tested the reliability of the instrument. The second pilot study tested the validity of the instrument. Items determined as misfits from each pilot study were removed or modified. The last stage assessed the three scales (dimensions) of participation. <br />
<br />
Evaluation<br />
Using the convenience sampling technique limits external validity. The sample may not be able to represent the range of community reintegration problems faced by the entire population of injured OIF and OEF veterans.<br />
<br />
The use of interview in the formative stage and questionnaire in the pilot studies were appropriate in supporting the data requirements of the study. The interview results supported the creation of the measure and the questionnaire responses were used to evaluate the reliability and validity of the study. Other data collection methods may not be able to address the purpose of the study in the same way.<br />
Positivism was the appropriate research paradigm since the thrust of the study was the scientific collection of data to support the development of a community reintegration measure for injured service veterans.<br />
<br />
The combination of qualitative and quantitative research was appropriate in addressing the research question implied from the purpose of the study. Qualitative data supported the creation of the instrument measuring community reintegration, with focus on participation. The quantitative data informed on the reliability and validity of the instrument for application to the population of returning service personnel. Using a mono-method research design would not sufficiently address the purpose of the study.<br />
<br />
The procedures in the formative stage of the research were not thoroughly explained since these were reported in another study. This study has to be consulted to replicate the formative stage. The procedures for the pilot study were clearly explained to support replication. The results of the CRIS scale scores were not shown in the study to limit the replication of the CRIS scales assessment stage.<br />
<br />
Data Analysis<br />
Summary<br />
Content analysis is the analytical method used on the qualitative data in the formative stage of the research. Content analysis was used to assess the problems identified in the interview and classify these into the three dimensions or scales of participation. Descriptive and statistical methods were employed to analyze data from the pilot studies and the scales assessment. The descriptive statistics used included frequencies, averages or means and other summative techniques. The Item Response Theory (IRT), specifically the Rasch model is a statistical tool used to measure the reliability and validity of the instrument or scale. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used in determining the variance in the data falling under the three scales. General linear models were employed to assess individual characteristics such as age, employment and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with the three scales. <br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
The content analysis led to 97 statements on extent of participation, 116 statements on perceived limitation in participation, and 83 statements on participation satisfaction (Resnik et al., 2009) reflecting the various problems encountered by injured veterans during community reintegration. The descriptive and statistical analysis determined the statements considered as misfits based on measures of reliability and validity. The final instrument is comprised of 97statements on extent of participation, 107 statements on perceived limitation in participation, and 85 statements under participation satisfaction (Resnik et al., 2009), with the statements reflecting significant levels of reliability and validity. <br />
<br />
Evaluation<br />
The data analysis techniques were adequate by supporting the thorough analysis of the items included in the measure and testing for reliability and validity of the instrument. The data analysis techniques also matched with the qualitative or quantitative nature of data assessed.<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
The presentation was incomplete. The result of the interview in the formative stage of the research was not shown. The CRIS scale cores analysis was not also shown in the study. The items included under the three scales were not identified and the items changed or modified were also not indicated. While the study identified the three scales comprising the instrument, the items under these scales were not shown in the text or even in an appendix.<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
The authors identified the limitations in their study as the derivation only of estimates for the entire population based on data from a small sample. The authors also identified the employment of CRIS in a broader population and use of the CRIS as an instrument administered via computer as areas for future research.<br />
<br />
Conclusions<br />
Conclusion I<br />
Summary<br />
The resulting instrument (CRIS) is comprehensive by focusing on the various participation problems encountered by service veterans. The instrument is a reliable and valid measure of the community reintegration of returning injured service personnel.<br />
<br />
Evaluation of internal validity<br />
This conclusion was based on the results of the content analysis, descriptive analysis, and statistical analysis used on the treatment of the data collected from the three stages of the study. The conclusion responds to the research question implied from the purpose of the study by pointing to the creation of a new community integration instrument and the significant levels of reliability and validity of the instrument. The conclusion relates to filling the lack of community integration measures for service veterans mentioned in the introduction. The possible threat to internal validity is the comprehensiveness of the items given that the items were based on interviews of a limited a number of respondents. The study explains this threat by recognizing the value of the items as approximations of the community integration experiences of service veterans. This conclusion is consistent with the results of the study and falls within the scope of the investigation.<br />
<br />
Conclusion II<br />
Summary<br />
Computer-adapted testing and broader IRT can be used to improve CRIS by minimizing the burden to respondents of answering the lengthy instrument.<br />
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Evaluation of internal validity<br />
This conclusion does not directly follow the data analysis. There was no previous discussion of problems in responding to the questions or in analyzing the data because of the length of the instrument. This conclusion is based on the limitations of the study and the areas for future research. This conclusion responds to the research question in so far as to provide direction in further developing CRIS. This conclusion does not relate to any findings discussed in the introduction, which focused on the lack of community measurement instrument and not on the burden of instruments on respondents because of length. The possible threat to internal validity of this conclusion is its characteristic as an after-thought to the development of CRIS and not directly linked to the findings. While this conclusion is not inconsistent with the other conclusion, this is outside of the scope of the findings.<br />
<br />
Modifications to the Current Study<br />
A number of modifications in the methodology of the study are recommended to improve the internal validity and allow replication. First is an increase in the number of respondents. There were 14 veteran respondents in the formative stage. Increasing the number of respondents could yield to problems in community reintegration not covered by the current study. There were 50 and 76 respondents in the two pilot studies respectively. Increasing the number can lead not just to approximations but to generalizations. Second is obtaining respondents from different venues, medical and social service institutions for veterans in other states, not just at Providence VA Medical Center. This supports a more geographically and possibly demographically representative sample. Third is the use of stratified random sampling to enhance representation of the research population in terms of socio-demographic, health and other characteristics that lead to better representation and affect the results of the study. These modifications enhance the drawing of inferences and generalizations.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-14070761997085366092017-07-02T05:02:00.001-07:002017-07-02T05:02:23.646-07:00Treatment of DepressionNewer Pharmacotherapies According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (1999), Depressive disorders are grave and disabling diseases. It is approximated that at least one out of five people are affected by this disorder in their lifetime. This disorder brings about devastating economic effects to the individual and to the family. In the United States alone it is estimated that financial costs for the management of depressive disorders are higher than 44 billion (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999).<br />
<br />
Personal impacts of the disease are reflected by the high rate of mortality as well as impairment in multiple areas of functioning. WHO approximates that depressive disorders are the fourth most significant causes of disability globally. The United States Department of Human Health and Services in the late 1980s, as indicated by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (1999), supported the establishment of standard guidelines for depressive disorders especially major depression. These guidelines played a very important role in advancing knowledge although evidence was inadequate to deal with numerous clinically significant questions. From that time onwards, publicized focus on dealing with and treating depression and also on the development of various antidepressants have resulted in tremendous growth in prescribing of antidepressants in addition to increasing costs for health plans. Clinicians have been faced by confusion in making a choice between herbal remedies and novel antidepressants.<br />
<br />
This report is aimed at helping clinicians choose wisely between herbal remedies and new antidepressants. It also aims at assisting organizations establish clinical guidelines for the treatment of depressive disorders. A far reaching assessment of the advantages and the disadvantages of herbal drugs and new antidepressants for use in the treatment of depressive disorders in both adults and children, are provided in this report. Various newer pharmacotherapies and herbal drugs are focused on in this report. Antidepressants developed earlier are only considered when they are being compared with a newer antidepressant (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). This report addresses the efficacy of newer antidepressants for use in the management of most prevalent forms of depressive disorders. It also addresses questions regarding the efficacy of newer antidepressants as compared to psychosocial therapies as well as the efficacy of herbal treatments. Specific populations are focused on in this report children as well as adolescents in specific settings (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999).<br />
<br />
Literature was extracted from special records of about 8, 415 articles dealing with clinical trials and references from relevant meta-analysis and professionals (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). Trials in these records addressed depressive disorders identified from numerous sources including electronic databases. Evaluation of sources was carried out within a period of 18 years, from 1980-1998, so as to obtain literature pertinent to new pharmacotherapies. Various terms referring to depressive disorders were put together with a list of newer antidepressants as well as herbal therapies to make 1,277 records (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). <br />
<br />
Randomized controlled trials that lasted for six weeks were reviewed. Most of these trials compared a newer antidepressant with an older one, a placebo or a psychosocial therapy. Most trials involved patients of depressive disorders who had a clinical outcome. This review identified grave but rare effects of various drugs. Articles from databases were searched based on the effects of various drugs.<br />
<br />
Specific words such as serious, sever, adverse, and poisoning were used during database search for articles (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). Data obtained from each clinical trial was independently abstracted by two people. It was then synthesized descriptively focusing on participants as well as diagnostic descriptors, characteristics for intervention, designs of various studies, and outcomes of the trials. Empirical Bayes random-effects estimator technique was used to qualitatively analyze some data. The most important results were response rate of symptoms, dropouts, and the rate of discontinuation as a result of serious effects. Response rate, according to Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (1999), was recorded as 50, or more symptomatic improvement, as evaluated using a depression symptoms rating scale. These rates were calculated with the help of a modified intention-to-treat approach. Considering that some of those who dropped out of the study may have responded, analysis using the modified intention-to-treat generated a conservative approximate of the effect of treatment. Based on endpoint technique a sensitivity test was carried out with the denominator for the risk ratio being the number of those who completed follow up (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999).<br />
<br />
Approximately 300 randomized trials assessed new antidepressants with most of them focusing on major depression. Other studies focused on dysthymia, subsyndromal and anxiety disorders (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). More than 100 trials compared the efficacy of new pharmacotherapies to placebo. Most trials, as illustrated by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (1999), used a double blind method that lasted for about 6-8 weeks. Reporting of most of these trials was incomplete. Very few studies described the setting of the study, nature and the content of clinical relations between participants and providers, the socio-economic status and cultural background of the participants. Secondary results were also reported irregularly for analysis (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999).<br />
<br />
More than 80 of the studies proved newer antidepressants as more effective drugs as compared to placebo for the treatment of depressive disorders, with response rate being more than half for active treatment and less that half for placebo (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 1999). The study also realized that newer antidepressants are equally effective as compared to older pharmacotherapies. It was concluded that new antidepressants are the drugs of choice for the treatment of depressive disorders. From this assignment I have learnt how the correct procedure to follow while reporting a research. I have also learned that for a drug to be considered effective it has to undergo extensive evaluation.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-20380752565147691412017-07-02T05:01:00.002-07:002017-07-02T05:01:47.400-07:00Prejudices are ChangeablePrejudice is defined as an unfavorable attitude and behavior towards other people. History has witnessed the pernicious effects of prejudices in the form of genocides, holocausts and colonialism. The most useful tool for expressing prejudice has been language, therefore it is regarded that we can change peoples attitude and prejudices if we if we can change the language they use. Prejudice and discrimination can be both subtle and blatant (Kupetz 37). The relationship of language with prejudice is very strong as the words are the currency of prejudice (Rauch). Purists who aim to eradicate a single tint of prejudice from the society are of the view that as language has been used by the propagandists and biased ones to bring harm to the society, such language must be scrutinized strictly. They also believe that peoples attitude and prejudice can be changed if the language they use is altered in its very nature.<br />
<br />
On the other hand some of the writers, mainly pluralists, are against the view of changing language to eradicate prejudice. Prejudices may not be all pernicious in its entirety and therefore need not to be eradicated from any society but the greater need is to channel these prejudices in the positive direction to make the most of it. This is the main reason that some of the journalists have resented the options for abolishing prejudices from the society. Jonathan Rauch is one of the writers who argue that by investing more on prejudices we can be able to take advantage of the underlying prejudices in any society. In his article, In defense of prejudice why incendiary speech must be protected, Jonathan Rauch announces that his article is not for defending any kind of prejudice rather his article is favoring for intellectual pluralism (Rauch). The racist expression is a fruit of freedom of expression and in order to access the progress of knowledge and advancements of science, one has to swalow the bitter fruit of prejudice and accept that for as thickheaded and wayward animal as us, the realistic question is how to make the best of prejudice, not how to eradicate it (Rauch). Prejudices are changeable but the real utility of prejudices can be in using them rather than altering their forms. As Rauch defends the reviving of prejudices on the ground that if intellectual pluralism is promoted in a society prejudices can be made socially productive by pitting prejudice against prejudice and dogma against dogma exposing all to withering public criticism (Rauch). Pluralism, defines Rauch, is the principle that provides space for the minorities against whom the prejudices of a society are targetted. These minorities include the criminals and gay, etc. although they, dissidents, are responsible for the progress of a society. The real threat to pluralism, that defends prejudices to an extent, is from purism which aims to wash away the tints of prejudices without paying heed to the consequent injustices on the subjects of prejudices. Purism campaigns against the language that is an efficacious tool for prejudice. Rauch holds the view that language does not reflect a persons feelings in all cases, as in Mark Twains novel Huckelberry Finn the use of nigger does not make the book an act of hate speech , and it is an ironic fact the mere utterance of the word nigger by a non-white is a racist act (Rauch).<br />
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Some of the researchers see the prejudice as a serious psycological issue that must be given full treatment through guidance and reforming ones attitudes and behavior towards other human beings.But the important point is that prejudice can be changed through language. The need is to implement changes from the authorities to design policies to secure the weaker and stigmatized sections of the society. While the view of utilizing prejudice in a better way also holds an impact if it is applied in the society. But due to the strong relation of language and prejudice the real need for the law enforcing authorities is to pay constant heed to the abuse of language by the prejudiced souls.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-83561186479333029732017-07-02T05:01:00.000-07:002017-07-02T05:01:27.274-07:00Mass Murderer Charles WhitmanCharles Joseph Whitman who was born on the 24th of June 1941 was shot dead by the police after killing 14 people and wounding at least 32 others in a shooting spree around the University of Texas (Sillup). He had previously killed his mother and his wife before orchestrating the deadliest university shooting rampage in the history of the United States before Seung Hui Cho killed 32 people in Virginia Tech in 2007. Charles Whitman had grown up in a complete nuclear family. His father was financially stable, running a successful plumbing business in Florida. His family was however scuttled after a dysfunctional marriage forced his mother to abandon his father and move to Texas (A E Television Network). His father is reported to have been too demanding and required perfection from his wife and kids.<br />
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Early life<br />
Charles Joseph Whitmans father attended Bethesda School for Boys in Georgia. His mother Margaret was a devout catholic and met his father still in Savannah, Georgia and after their marriage, they moved to Lake Worth, Florida where Charles Whitman was born (A E Television Network). He and his brothers, Patrick and John, served as altar boys at the Sacred Heart Roman Catholic church where Charles Whitman would later choose the confirmation name Joseph for himself. Charles Whitman was an extremely intelligent child he scored 138 on an Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test when he was six years old. He loved music and sports and undertook piano lessons for five year. Later in high school, he became a pitcher for the school baseball team (A E Television Network).<br />
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Charles Whitman excelled in his academics and as reports indicate, he was very much loved by his neighbors and peers. He however complained of migraine headaches, which were later to be attributed to a highly cancerous brain tumor discovered during the autopsy on his body (Macleod). Besides the negative impact on his mind from living in a dysfunctional family, Charles Whitman abused amphetamines and had other health complications.<br />
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Charles Whitman Senior had a large collection of firearms and taught his sons how to use firearms at a very young age. He taught them how to clean and maintain firearms and even took them out for target practice exercises (Sillup). It is from here that, as his childhood neighbors would come to report later, that Charles Whitman developed a very keen interest in firearms at a very young age. Perhaps this was ill-informed as when his son finally got the motive, he used his extensive knowledge of firearms to kill so many people.<br />
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Struggles with life<br />
When Charles Whitmans family became dysfunctional, he became much stressed to the stage of becoming psychotic (Time). In fact, a psychiatric serving at the University of Texas Health center later disclosed that the discussions he had with Charles Whitman centered on this topic. Against his fathers strong will, Charles joined the US Marines in July 1959. When the catholic father at the Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church, Father Leduc, asked him to explain his defiance to his father, Charles Whitman alleged that his father had been harassing him (Macleod). He said that on several occasions, Charles Whitman senior had come home drunk and physically assaulted him, sometimes shoving him into the familys swimming pool. If these allegations are true, then Charles Whitmans father contributed greatly into his sons becoming demented.<br />
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On September 15th 1961, Charles Whitman enrolled in the University of Texas to pursue a Bachelors degree in Mechanical Engineering under a USMC scholarship. At the university, his hobbies included martial arts, scuba diving and hunting (Lavergne 12). By this time, he had already started to exhibit abnormal behavior. He once went on hunting hike while in campus, killed a deer and dragged in into the hostels and de-skinned it inside the shower of his dormitory. This outrageous prank coupled with poor grades in class prompted the USMC to withdraw his scholarship in 1963 (Time).<br />
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The previous year, Charles Whitman had met and fallen in love with Kathleen Frances Leissner, a fellow student at the University of Texas. They had traveled to Kathleen Frances hometown in Texas where they exchanged marriage vows in a wedding ceremony conducted by Father Leduc (A E Television Network). After Charles Whitmans scholarship was withdrawn, he resumed duty with the US military at the Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina. Even though he was promoted to Lance Corporal, personal woes continued to follow him. To start with, he was involved in a road accident when an army jeep he was driving rolled over an embankment. He was hospitalized for four days.<br />
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In the November 1962, Charles Whitman love for firearms put him into trouble at his military station. He was found to be in possession of a personal firearm while on base. In addition, he had become fond of gambling and once threatened a fellow marine who owed him 30 dollars (Sillup). Whitman was demanding repayment plus a 15 dollar interest. These events led to his being court-martialed after which he was sentenced to 30 days confinement, 90 days of hard labor and then demoted from Lance Corporal into a Private.<br />
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Charles Whitman was honorably discharged from the United States Army. He returned to the University of Texas where he enrolled to study architectural engineering. Meanwhile, he was working at the Standard Finance Company offices as a bill collector before being hired as a teller by the Austin National Bank (Sillup). In January 1965, Charles Whitman took up a temporary job Central Flight Lines. He also surveyed traffic as part of the team at the Texas Highways Department. At the time Kathleen was teaching biology. Family trouble began to haunt him again when his mother officially announced she was divorcing his father. Charles Whitman drove all the way to Florida to help his mother relocate to Austin, Texas. His little brother John also departed from Lake Worth but Patrick opted to remain with his father. Charles was under extreme pressure from his father to convince his mother to return to Lake Worth and move in back with him (Sillup).<br />
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The Killings<br />
One day before Charles Whitman committed his infamous horrendous killings around the University of Texas his life was not out of the norm. He had previously purchased a cache of arms, binoculars and a knife claiming to be preparing to go on a hike hunting wild hogs (Lavergne 18). He drove as usual to pick up his wife from his place of work and took her to a matinee before meeting his mother for lunch. In the afternoon, they visited his friends Fran and John Morgan in the neighborhood and left at around five thirty so that Kathleen would make it to her night shift starting at six. At 6.45, Charles Whitman started typing his infamous suicide notes indicating that he could not understand the motivation behind the acts he was about to do and that he had been bombarded with many irrational thoughts (Sillup). He declared the true love he felt for his mother and wife and then started his mission.<br />
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Sometime after midnight, he suffocated and stabbed her mother fatally. When Kathleen returned from work, he crawled on her and stabbed her three times in the heart as she slept, killing her instantly. He then sat down and continued with his notes, noting down that he had just killed the two people he loved most in the world (Time). He then wrote an order directing that proceeds from his life insurance and estate be donated to a mental health research institution so that tragedies like the one he was committing would not occur in future (Time).<br />
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The following morning, he loaded his arms cache into a dolly and cheated his way up the bell tower. The first person to detect danger was the receptionist named Edna. After she asked if he had a workers identification card, he knocked her out with the butt of a rifle. Moments later, Whitman opened fire to two families who were making their way up the tower, killing two people instantly. At approximately 11.48 a.m. on August 1 1966, he fired his first shot from the bell towers outer deck (Time). What followed was a 96-minute ordeal in which he gunned down 14 people and wounded 34 more before police officers led by Martinez, Jerry Day and Houston McCoy and a hastily assembled force killed him (Lavergne 37).<br />
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Charles Whitmans Motivations<br />
Charles Whitman was obviously mentally ill. He kept a personal diary titled The Daily Record of C. J. Whitman in which he openly admitted to himself that he was having a personality crisis (Lavergne 47)). He lamented in one of the entries that he was finding himself acting violently towards his wife Kathleen. Deep inside, a keen observer will see a deeply tormented man whose ambitions had not been fulfilled, a man who had not been fully appreciated by his father and family the way he would have wanted.<br />
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Charles Whitman was frustrated with life. Despite his being intellectually gifted, he did not manage to satisfy the requirements for the award of a degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Texas. He was therefore in the process of venting his anger out on people. Some of his closest friends, John and Francis, disclosed during the inquiry into the University of Texas tower shootings that Charles Whitman himself had admitted to them that he had physically assaulted his wife Kathleen on more than three occasions (Macleod).<br />
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When Charles Whitman joined the Marines, his conduct was unbecoming. It would be correct to conclude that he joined the army merely to exert his authority and independence from his demanding father (Lavergne 27). In his journal mentioned above, he once wrote concerning his contempt and disrespect for the marines. Being the genius he was, he pointed out what he perceived were the shortcomings of the marines. He was therefore not content with his position not only in the marines but in the society as a whole and his overwhelming energy and ego made him feel he could either have become a better person and made considerable input to the society, or his potential was not fully utilized (Macleod).<br />
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Another explanation for the outrageous crimes that Charles Whitman committed was the anomaly in his brain and central nervous system. Charles confirmed in his writings that he had seen several mental health experts. The mistake that happened was that almost all of them believed he had a psychological disorder and gave him prescription drugs to contain his runaway emotions of anger and confusion (Lavergne 61). The problem was that despite the fact that Charles Whitman had had a tumultuous childhood and early adulthood, he had a life threatening brain tumor that was responsible for his bizarre conduct. Records available from the university health services prove that he had sought professional help on several occasions. On many of these and to close associates, Charles Whitman remarked that it would be simpler for him to escalate the University of Texass bell tower and indiscriminately kill (Lavergne 62) people. It is very unfortunate that no one realized he actually meant was he said until it was too late and 14 people were already dead and many others were wounded.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
Charles Whitman was a good man who wanted to make the most out of life. In his journal, which he filled daily during his stay in the marines and later, he often expressed his desire to become a better man than his father had been. He also loved his wife Kathleen dearly. The explanation to what made him commit those murders however emanated more from his brain tumor than from psychological effects of life experiences (Sillup). Later research shows that glioblastoma tumors prompt victims to react with progressive irritation and rage especially in the latter stages. Studies carried out indicated he was to die early due to this condition it is an explanation as to why he could not control his emotions and actions.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-85541678893689983212017-07-02T04:59:00.001-07:002017-07-02T04:59:29.646-07:00Hospital ObservationMany children often dread any visit to hospitals as they are mostly of the view that a hospital is a place where many injections take place and where there are many sick people. In the eyes of a child, a hospital has a bad smell, which is the distinctive disinfectant smell present in all hospitals. As study conducted specifically for children came to a conclusion that, to many of them the colors of hospital walls are dull and not cheerful at all. Although the many toys that are present at the pediatric units of many hospital are a huge relief for children in such a somber environment as they are a distraction to the solemnity of a hospital. Many children are also of the view that what happens in the treatment rooms in hospital is a punishment, mainly because of the injections that the nurses may possibly inject them.<br />
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In many cases, when a child is taken to hospital, he or she is usually scared and worried because he or she often feels that he or she has been taken to a very cold and harsh environment away from the loving and comfort atmosphere of home. A pediatric clinic that has toys, dolls, little plastic people, blocks, play dough and cheerful children books will make a huge impact on a child as he or she will become more at ease at the hospital (Rollins Mahan, 2005). A child may feel withdrawn because of the new strangers he or she encounters at the hospital unlike the familiar faces he or she is used to seeing back at home (Thompson Stanford, 1981). However, the hospital staffs are often friendly to the children and they wear cheerful smiles, thus the children will feel a little at ease after a while in the hospital. Children who are left in the pediatric wards to recuperate show signs of distress, as they feel lonely and abandoned in a strange place. Many children at the wards cry with relief after seeing their parents because most of them are so unhappy at the hospital and others rejected or ignored their parents because they are of view that their parents dumped them in the hospital (Quinton Rutter, 2008)<br />
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The social environment of the hospital is quite different from other places as different people from all lifestyles surround it. There are the medical personnel, which is made up of the doctors, nurses and other medics, other patients and the family members and friends of the patients. The medical personnel are usually quite friendly to the children and this makes the children who are admitted in the wards to be at ease during the course of treatment. During visiting hours at the hospital, there are many visitors who mostly comprise of parents, other family members and friends. The presence of familiar people will make a child in the hospital feel comfortable and he or she will be able to enjoy the hospital experience more.<br />
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The presence of familiar people in a hospital where a child is admitted may have a huge impact on the child, as the child will feel loved, cherished, and more comfortable around the hospital (Cox et al, 2006). The child will face a new day at the hospital with anticipation as he or she will feel comfortable because of familiar people inside the hospital. Thus, the child will be comfortable. However, lack of familiar people in the hospital will make the child throw some temper tantrums as he or she will feel alone in the world with no one to show love or affection. For instance, absence of the parents of a child who is admitted in the ward may make a child feel depressed and the child may even throw a tantrum (Walker, 2007).<br />
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The hospital environment includes certain vocabulary that is easily misunderstood by children. For instance, the term injection, in the eye of a child is a violent and very painful act and most children feel like they are victims of this horrific act (Cox et al, 2006). Such terms may have a negative impact on a child as they often make a child to be psychologically affected and a big resistance from the child would be the reaction if there were a suggestion of a hospital visit from the parents.<br />
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There are many areas in hospitals where children are restricted to enter. For instance, children are generally restricted to enter the general ward because there are many chances that a child may contract a disease from this ward because there are many patients suffering from different ailments who have come to seek medical help (Quinton Rutter, 2008). Other areas are such as the highly prone wards in the hospitals, which admit patients who are suffering from dangerous ailments like tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. Such restricted areas often pose high risks to children, as there immune system is not very strong like for an adult and they may be infected with some of the diseases that are present in these restricted areas (OHagan Smitt, 1999). Furthermore, parents are usually advised to accompany their children at all times to avoid the children wondering in the hospital corridors alone, as they may gain access to the restricted areas and if this occurs it would have some detrimental effects on a child.<br />
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Recommended improvements<br />
The pediatric unit in hospitals should have interiors that appeal to children. For instance, colorful paintings in the walls will make the pediatric unit look more appealing to the children. This will make the children feel more at ease on each visit to the hospital as well as those children who are already admitted (Browning, 2009)<br />
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The pediatric unit should consider designing a playroom, which can be a great place for children to play with their toys and this can make them forget the stressful routine in the hospitals. Play is reassuring and familiar to a child and it is often a way of sharing and communicating feelings and it can help a child to understand what hospital is all about (Walker, 2007). When a child plays with dolls, cars and other toys, this will keep a child in touch with the home the child is familiar with and is missing. Additionally, children benefit a lot from playing through the things that they are experiencing at the hospital, for instance, giving a doll an injection and taking teddies temperature.<br />
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Furthermore, to make a childs visit to the hospital easier, the parents should prepare the child psychologically for the hospital visit like four days prior to the hospital visit day (Quinton Rutter, 2008). This ensures that the child is prepared well for the hospital, as in most cases many children view hospitals as punishment places, but with the necessary assurance from the parents they may not feel like this.<br />
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Moreover, the medical staff at the pediatric units should be more cheerful as this may relax the children admitted at this unit. A sense of warmth and great understanding can be a great relief to children who are admitted as well as those who are in for the routine check-ups (Balter LeMonda, 2006).<br />
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The medical staff at the pediatric unit should communicate frequently with the children and assure them constantly that they will get better soon (Schaffer, 2003). This may make the child feel assured that their stay in the hospital will not be for long and that they will return to their homes soon. Children often like to hear this as the promise of home even uplifts their spirits. <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-9210811872156744302017-07-02T04:54:00.001-07:002017-07-02T04:54:34.329-07:00Playground Observation For proper learning and development, safe environments are necessary for children. Safety and security are the main factors that can enhance learning in children. Thereby environments that provide entertainment to children include parks and must have great amount of safety and security. This paper will discuss some improvements that are needed in the park visited.<br />
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Introduction<br />
Parks are a place where children come for their refreshments while they play and learn from their partners in play. Many kinds of equipments are present in the playground that ensures learning and playing in children. However there are many improvements in modern day parks that can ensure learning along with playing in children ensuring development not only physicallybut in a psychological way (Playground Safety, 2010).<br />
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Park that has been visited for this paper is Anniversary Park in Streamwood, Illinois (IL) located on Street 164, Lasalle Rd. From its outlook it is a well-developed park but there are some minor changes that are needed to ensure children safety. Park was visited in the evening hours when there are several families in the park. During the visit some observations were made and recorded as under while keeping in mind the importance of safety of children.<br />
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Playground safety<br />
Outdoor equipment and playgrounds are best sources for children to enjoy fresh air and exercises. Playgrounds are mainly approached by children thereby safety concerns are important in this case. Faulty equipment, improper surfaces and careless behaviors from adults have resulted in number of children being rushed to ER in hospitals daily (Spodek, and Saracho, 2006, p. 56).<br />
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Adult supervision should be ensured by observing that equipment in the playground is in accordance to the maturity level of children as well as it is safe. Any unsafe behavior around the equipment by children should be keenly observed. Anniversary Park in Streamwood lacks this main point that adults stand at a farther point where visibility of children is harder thereby leveling of ground is required (Hughes, 2009, p. 67).<br />
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Playground design safety needs to be ensured on daily basis making sure that all equipments being used by children are safe. Thereby on a daily basis, design, spacing of equipment and surface inspection is required to ensure safety (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2002).<br />
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In order to reduce injuries, park surfaces are in a need to be checked regularly. Surfaces in Anniversary Park in Streamwood are hard and are not softer. Ground surfaces of parks should be softer and should be able to provide cushioning in order to avoid injuries in case of a childs fall. Ground material as concrete and blacktop are to be completely avoided in parks (Louv, 2005, p. 56).<br />
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Playground equipment design and safety is to be ensured in Anniversary Park in Streamwood by separating playground equipments that are used by older kids and those in use by younger kids. Groups of kids visiting playgrounds belong to three age groups, infants and toddlers less than 2 years of age, 2 to 5 year old kids who are preschoolers, and 5 to 12 year old school-age kids. This park is in a need of additional guardrails as well as protective barriers for surfaces that are more elevated in comparison to other surfaces (Tai, Haque, and McLellan, 2006, p. 67).<br />
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Maintenance and inspection is important in all parks including Anniversary Park in Streamwood. Some broken equipment has been spotted in this park thereby there is a need to keep an observed look on these broken equipments in order to prevent any injuries in children. Any metal equipment used in the parks should not be rusting and most importantly, any wooden equipment being used should not be cracking (Berry, 2001, p. 56).<br />
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Improvements required in Anniversary Park in Streamwood<br />
It is important to realize that playground activities are an important part of development in children thereby safe play can ensure better psychological and physical development in children. Thereby playing should be considered as learning by park authorities (Solomon, 2005, p. 67).<br />
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Playground surfaces should be regularly checked for any irregularities and it should be ensured that no hard materials are used to avoid injuries in children. Playground surfaces should be softer and should provide cushioning effect on impact.<br />
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35 of time is spent in playgrounds of children as it is realized at schools that children learn faster with playing. Games and equipments in the parks should be addressing cognitive skills in children that can help them learn (Sadler, 2005, p. 56).<br />
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Once the feeling of trust is incorporated in children in playgrounds, they can learn fast. In Anniversary Park in Streamwood, there is a need of enclosed and sheltered play environments that can ensure safe feeling in children.<br />
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Space around play equipment should be adequate in order to ensure complete freedom for playing (Mattern, 2002, p. 67).<br />
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Equipments in playground should be placed in accordance to kinds of plays that enhance learning. Functional play is when toddlers and infants explore different objects moving hitherto in a repetitive manner thereby using their senses.<br />
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Materials are used to get an intended result in constructed play thereby plastic made and harmless building equipment is needed for children older than toddlers (Spodek, and Saracho, 2006, p. 67).<br />
Symbolic plays are where children make use of symbols or objects that represent certain objects.<br />
Games, indoor and outdoor should be introduced that can increase feeling of competition in children (Pancella, 2005, p. 56).<br />
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Playgrounds For Seniors<br />
Playgrounds are not only meant for children but they are also a good source of exercising for elders. Many countries have incorporated mild exercising machines for elder citizens including Japan where elder citizens are in higher number as compared to children. Thereby inspirations should be gathered from these countries and additions are needed to be made in parks in US (Wellhousen, 2002, p. 67). It has been observed that elder citizens in US are just sitting around in these parks taking care of their children, while these elders are to be given same amount of leisure as exercising equipments. In addition to equipments, elder citizens have better chance of socializing with people of their own ages or younger. It needs to be realized that there is no age to have fun.<br />
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In UK, it has been realized this as a need of the elderly thereby several huge investments are being planned for creating playgrounds that can assist elder citizens along with children (Thornley, 2010).<br />
Government grants are important role players in collecting, generating and investing funding on many playgrounds. State of Colorado has invested in many parks in collaboration with Great Outdoors Colorado Local Parks and Outdoor Recreation Grants and Mini-Grant. These grants are meant to make improvements in outdoor recreational areas and parks in communities of Colorado. Similarly efforts have been made by provincial government of British Columbia as grants have been invested in schools to enlace playgrounds facilities by the help of Gaming Policy and Enforcement Branch. U.S. Department of Education has started granting systems for playgrounds known as Peaceful Playgrounds Physical Education for Progress and these grants are invested in play activities during school and afterschool activities, accounting for 150,000 to 500,000 (Parents Magazine, 2005). These grants are invested to ensure improvements in physical education in children up to 12th grade and these grants will ensure that physical fitness is increased in children in school and afterschool (Cuyler, 2006, p. 56).<br />
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Conclusion<br />
Playgrounds or play areas are designed in such a way that they provide space and fresh air along with equipments, which is used by children which can help them learn more while relaxing and enjoying either separately or in groups. Nevertheless, for this, it is necessary that the equipments be used employ safety and are kept under observation of the elders. In addition, these equipment should be safer and free from rust and pointed edges. Moreover, parks include children visitors of three age groups thereby play areas of three age groups should be separated from the others.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-25354759015565006922017-03-04T08:28:00.003-08:002017-03-04T08:28:35.158-08:00Discussions related to the Triangular Theory of LoveLove plays an integral role in mate selection in individualistic cultures. However, love does not have much role to play in the collectivist cultures. The more economically developed a culture is, the more will it be individualist in nature. Since in collectivist culture marriage between two people affects the entire family love takes a backseat.<br />
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There are many different combinations of love. There is infatuated love which lacks the components like intimacy and commitment and is solely based on passion. These relationships do not last long. This kind of love is more rampant in individualist society as it concerns only the lovers themselves. Another combination makes companionate love. This love generally lacks passion but has the ingredients like commitment and intimacy. This love is common in collectivist society where a large percentage of people opt for arranged marriages. When there is an arranged marriage naturally the entire family is involved and commitment becomes an important quotient. After many years of marriage when passion takes a backseat then couples are in companionate relationships. The third and the best combination of love is of course the consummate love. This love can be found in both the cultures especially in newly married couples. In newly married couples there is loads of passion and intimacy is not difficult to achieve. In collectivist cultures attaining commitment is not a difficult thing. While in the individualist cultures, there can be many cases when commitment is the basis of relationship. Thus if couples are able to achieve the ideal combination of intimacy, passion and commitment then they are the happiest of all.<br />
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There are two strong reasons that cause the different combinations of love. The first reason is of course the culture one belongs to. The culture plays an important role in deciding the ratio of intimacy, passion and commitment in individuals. The second reason is the stage of life a couple is in. Youngsters experience more of romantic or infatuated love. Couples with children are more into companionate or consummate love. Very old couples are into companionate love.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-64730022525977409512017-03-04T08:28:00.001-08:002017-03-04T08:28:17.569-08:00Psychology of Gender1. Discuss and give examples of how gender bias can become a factor in research.<br />
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Introduction<br />
The American Heritage Dictionary defines bias as preference or inclination that inhibits impartiality prejudice (American Heritage Dictionary, 1983).<br />
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When it comes to academic positions, women arent promoted as often as men, or the case may be that female academics find it difficult to apply their knowledge in research. Rather than investigate real differences, investigates stereotypical differences or does not investigate issues important to women e.g. violence, pregnancy. The research may even bring about biased thoughts by searching for reasons in women for abnormal or different behavior<br />
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Traditional psychological research previously concentrated on the male experience and point of view. Feminist research methods have changed how traditional research on gender has emerged. There is now a interest in women focused psychology or what is now called andocentric bias.<br />
Two theories of bias came about by, and were shaped, exaggerated, diminished the differences between men and women, Alpha Bias and Beta Bias they were termed. (Crosbie, 2009) Furthermore, these theories have contributed to the consensus that women were lesser by comparison to men male theory.<br />
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Examples of gender bias can be found in the following Kohlbergs work on male-female moral achievement. (Crosbie, 2009) His conclusions held that women were lower achievers than men. Bowlbys research on childcare raised the question as to whether or not women should stay at home instead of working outside and hiring childcare. Freuds theories of socialisation stated that women suffered from Penis envy that in turn leaves an imprint on their personality development. Erickson flatly said that women should stay home and care for their children.<br />
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Results extrapolated from research can also be skewed from biases. (Crosbie, L., 2009) For instance, stereotypes of typical females may be used instead of actual findings. This scenario if exacerbated can create unjustnon-substantiated differences. If the pool of peer reviewed articles, books, and other information is male dominated there can also be difficulties on finding credible studies that involve women.<br />
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Methodological bias<br />
Using male preferred techniques such as carrying out Lab experiments when women are more comfortable in less controlled environments as in the case of interviews where there is emphasis on participation and personal experience.<br />
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A study carried out on intra-abdominal obesity and metabolic risk factors in Denmark was almost solely done on the men The subjects included 46 Caucasian subjects (6 women and 40 men). The conclusion of the study was for young people, intra-abdominal fat is the reason behind six metabolic risk factors. Unfortunately this has been shown only in males.<br />
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2. Evaluate the influence of family and media on gender development.<br />
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Family influence<br />
A childs first exposure to the meaning of being male and female comes from the parents, (Lauer Lauer, 1994 Santrock, 1994 Kaplan, 1991). From infancy, parents treat their daughters and sons differently, by dressing them in colors that are gender specific, expecting differing behavior form girls and boys an giving them toys differentiated by gender. Childrens experiences with different family members also shapes their perceptions on gender roles, e.g. the differing treatment of brothers and sisters in the family.<br />
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There may be of some benefit to maintaining strict stereotypical gender roles, but not be forgotten are the costs. These include reducing the opportunities for the girls and boys, carrying on unfairness in the society and ignoring talent. Due to the major influence parents have on the development of gender roles, parents who want to display gender fairness and encourage both their sons their sons and daughters to be their best should adopt an a gender role that is androgynous and foster the same attitude in their children.<br />
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Media Influence<br />
Media utilize stereotypes. Magazines, radio, TV and computer software repeatedly show women and men in restricted roles. Importance is placed on mens strength and womens beauty. A good example can be found in Disney movies female characters are pretty and feminine and frequently need rescuing by men. The boys in magazines, movies and TV are portrayed as strong and show little emotion.<br />
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These gender roles and stereotypes do not serve the equivalent purpose that they did one hundred years ago on the contrary, these views of behavior and sexuality can be more of an impediment than help toward modern society.<br />
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3. Describe the way that girls are disadvantaged at school.<br />
According to the International Labor Organization girls are still disadvantaged when it come to education. The organization reports that for every one hundred boys enrolled in school there are ninety four girls, with girls in the rural areas being most disadvantaged. The total enrollment in secondary school in developing land is 57 for girls and 61 for the boys. In less economically developed countries the enrollment is 26 for girls and 32 for the boys. These statistics indicate that in the most part of the developing world a large percentage of girls fail to gain access to education beyond primary level. Girls can often be amongst the last people to be registered and amongst the first when it comes to being removed from schools when a family needs to choose between sending a girl or boy to school. This fact implies that discrimination is a major concern (ilo.org, 2009).<br />
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A major reason why girls miss school is because they need to contribute to the family income. Cost also poses a major challenge, school fees are still charged in at least some 101 countries. Other barriers to the education of the girl child include violence in schools, conflict, early marriage and HIVAIDS. For example in Nepal, 40 of girls get married by the age of 15. In the Caribbean, girls between the ages 15-19 are infected with HIVAIDS at higher rates than boys. It is estimated that during the 1990s, about 100,000 girls directly took part in conflicts of not less than 30 countries, not to mention the fact that of the worlds 25 million IDPs, the majority are women and children (unesco.org, 2003). The girl childs access to schooling can also be restricted by other issues, for example lack of sufficient sanitation facilities or safety while journeying to school. Lacking access to good education, girls land in the work force while still way under the minimum employment age, sacrificing their educational participation and success.<br />
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4. Compare face-to-face and online support groups<br />
Online support groups provide online help for health problems. Current research indicates that 56,000,000 adult Americans use the online support groups, most of them coming from socio-economically deprived backgrounds and minority groups. These groups are available throughout and one may come and leave at hisher own pleasure, not so with face to face groups. Online support groups allow one to remain anonymous if they wish to, and just read without participating. In an online set up, moderators can remove or alter hurtful and dangerous words and phrases and warning signs can be displayed, this is not possible in a face-to-face setting, once words are spoken the damage is already done.<br />
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One of the greatest benefits of an online support group is that driving across town or even to a different town is eliminated. Access to enormous amounts of materials and information referred to can be retrieved at the click of a button. Additionally there are records of everyones contributions going back several months. Most importantly, there are billions if not zillions of online support groups, so each individual is free to choose one to suit their personal comfort level. That way people can get the support that they require where they feel most comfortable.<br />
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Face to face groups offer the warmth and comfort through human contact. Participating in live group activities makes the experience more enriching. Members of face-to-face groups can exchange medication, supplements and other health foods. When a member of a face-to-face support group really needs help to do something, the support group members will be there to provide support. For instance if a member needs to move, everyone online will support the decision but none of them will be available to help with the packing. bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-61223884751384231402017-03-04T08:27:00.001-08:002017-03-04T08:27:18.747-08:00Organizational PsychologyQ4) The Path-Goal Theory<br />
The path-goal leadership theory is a theory that was proposed by an American psychologist Robert House and it postulates that a leader must motivate subordinates by emphasizing the relationship between the subordinates own needs and the organizational goals. In addition, this theory also contends that a leader should clarify and facilitate the path subordinates must take to fulfill their own needs as well as the organizations needs (House, 1971).Clarifying the path may be by giving directives or vague hints. This theory was developed to reconcile prior findings and anomalies resulting from empirical investigations of the effects of leader task orientation and leader person orientation on subordinate satisfaction and performance. The essential notion that underlies the path-goal theory is that individuals in superior positions should be effective to the extent that they compliment the environment that their subordinates work by providing the necessary cognitive working conditions in order for them to attain work goals and at the same time experience intrinsic satisfaction .<br />
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According to House and Mitchell (1974), there are four types of leadership styles that can be used by a leader depending on the situation on ground and they are as follows. (a) Supportive leadership-Here the leader creates a friendly working environment considering the need and welfare of the subordinates. It may include increasing self esteem and making the job more interesting for the workers. This style is best used when work is stressful or hazardous. (b)Directive leadership-This includes giving workers directives and appropriate guidance like issuing schedules of specific work to be done at specific times. This style can be used when the task to be done is unstructured and complex and the worker is inexperienced. (c)Participative leadership-this involves consulting workers and taking their ideas into consideration when making decisions and particular actions. It is best used when workers are experts and their advice is needed.(d)Achievement-oriented leadership-Here the leaders set high goals and expect the subordinates to have high level performances. Its best used when the task to be performed is complex. In relation with the dominant leadership paradigm of the time, the path goal theory is primarily a theory of task-person oriented supervisory behavior. It does not concern the leadership of entire oganisations, political behavior of leaders, and strategic leadership of organizations and the emergent informal leadership.<br />
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In conclusion the path-goal theory seeks to improve and ensure good leader-worker relationship only emphasizes the issues that affect the workers and their relationship with their seniors hence it does not totally look into any other part of the organization structure.<br />
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Q1) Steps in the research process<br />
Hopkins (2009) defines research as any original and systematic investigation that is undertaken in order to increase knowledge and understanding and also to establish facts and principles. It encompasses the creation of new ideas and generation of new knowledge. He also goes ahead to define research as a process of creating new and unique knowledge which is specific to an applied field of study.<br />
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Basing on the fact that research is done in systematic manner there are several steps involved before it comes to completion and they involve the following<br />
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(a)Topic identification and development-This includes stating the topic of interest. This can be done using the question to which you want to find a solution and after stating, it has to be tested by using the main concept or key words by looking them up in the appropriate background sources.<br />
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(b)Finding background information-once the main topic has been identified, one or more sources of background information should be found to help in understanding the broader context of the research. Most common sources are books and general encyclopedias.<br />
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(c)Finding books about the topic-Books can be found by searching using keyword, by title and subject.<br />
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(d) Finding periodicals-they can be found using online databases obtain articles from magazines, journals and newspapers.<br />
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(e)Finding internet resources-This involves use of search engines and a subject directory to locate materials on the web and since information on the internet varies in reliability, Google scholar or encyclopaedia Brittanica online can be used for reliable sources.<br />
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(f)Evaluation of findings-This means critically analyzing the information sources you have identified to evaluate the authority and quality of resources that were earlier located.<br />
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(g)Citation of the material used-Credit has to be given where it is due by documenting the sources used in the research to allow hose who will read your work to duplicate it and be able to locate the sources. Citations should be given using MLA or APA format bearing in mind that representing other peoples work as yours is plagiarism (Hopkins, 2009).<br />
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In conclusion, researches being a systematic process, all the steps described above have to be followed critically in order to come up with a good successful and convincing end result.<br />
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Q2) Ways of determining reliability of a test<br />
Reliability refers to the consistency of a test, survey, observation or any other measuring device. Normally a test is considered reliable if it gives the same results repeatedly. for example if a given test is designed to measure a certain trait, then each time the test is administered to a subject the results should be approximately the same. Although it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, there are possible ways of estimating it two of which are discussed below (Kendra, 2010).<br />
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(a)Test-retest reliability. To gauge reliability, the test is administered twice at two different points in time and this is normally used to assess the consistency of a test across time. This type of reliability test assumes that there will be no change in the quality being measured. This method is best used for things that are stable over time like intelligence and reliability will always be higher when little time has passed between tests. If a test is administered twice and the same results are obtained, then the reliability coefficient will be 1.0.The correlation of measurements across time will normally be less than perfect due to different experiences and attitudes that respondents will have encountered the time of the first test. The test-retest method is a simple way of determining reliability but it is costly and impractical (Key, 1997).<br />
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(b)Inter-rater reliability. This type of reliability is assessed by having two or more independent people (raters) to score the given test after which the scores are compared to determine the consistency of the raters estimates. One way to carryout this test is to have each rater assign each test item a score. For example each rater might score items on a scale of 1-10 and then calculate the correlation between the two ratings to determine the level of inter-rater reliability. Another means of testing inter-rater reliability is by having the raters determine which category each observation falls and then calculate the percentage of agreement between the raters. For example if they agree 8 out of 10 times then the test will be said to have an 80 inter-rater reliability (Kendra, 2010).<br />
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In conclusion, different methods of testing reliability should be applied in any given test to obtain more accurate results because these methods usually have their disadvantages hence it requires one to use several of them in combination to obtain better results.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-72139797423347183002017-03-04T08:25:00.000-08:002017-03-04T08:25:47.305-08:00Death in Indian and American culturesMost studies concerning human beings in the context of their culture as for a long time dealt with human death. Matters related to mortality have been given much attention in anthropology. Anthropology is the study of man in association with his culture (Piven, 2004). Human mortality and its rite do reflect the societys values and is also a significant aspect in determining them. The way that death is explained in a society does a lot in shaping the view of life in that society. It is the way a person expects to end that determines how heshe behaves in life. It is a fact that death is inevitable for every person. It is common in every society that every person has to die at a certain age. What differs is the answer to the question of death among societies (Twomey, 2007). Matters concerning death are explained differently by different cultures. This paper is a comparison of death in America and India.<br />
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Death in Indian and American cultures<br />
Death matters are related to religion. The most prominent religion in the United States is Christianity while in India it is mostly Islamic and Hindu. The ultimate end of every human being is death. This is universally known across all cultures and across all religions. This is the most common aspect relating to death in America and India. There are other common elements, but they differ with the communities in question. They are common in the two cultures but may vary according to individual societies or people. One of the aspects of death in these two cultures is the belief in reward and punishment (Roppolo Crow, 2007). The two cultures believe that after death the good people will receive their reward in heaven while the evil will be punished in hell. There is a faction of people in American culture who believe that death is the end and that there will be nothing after it. This is referred to as the state of nothingness. In the Indian society, almost every person believes in life after death. If there are any people who believe that nothing happens after death, they dare not express their views because this would be disrespecting their cultural beliefs. It is worth noting that Indians hold their culture and religious beliefs so dearly. Indians do not believe in the transmigration of souls. Hinduism believes that the departed soul moves through the pretaloka which is the world of spirits and ghosts up to the pitraloka which is the heaven. This is why after death the Hindus performs a lot of rituals. The rituals are believed to be for assisting the departed soul through its long journey (Tillett, 2005). America being a multicultural society has diverse beliefs in issues associated with death. Death in this society has a variety of explanations. Some people take it to mean dwelling in heaven or hell. Death is taken by some other Americans as a state of nothingness. There is yet another faction that believes it to be a transitory state that people enter before they return in another life or in another form (Frykenberg, 2003).<br />
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All the cultures believe in the separation of the soul from the body. The souls depart in different manner. Christians believe that the moment a person is dead, the soul leaves the body. The orthodox Muslims believe that when an individual passes on, the angel of death appears. This angel sits at the head of the dead person and talks to hisher soul depending on the character of that person. The souls of the evil people are commanded to leave to the anger of Allah, and the souls of the good people are asked to leave to the compassion of Allah (Piven, 2004). <br />
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Americans unlike the Indian culture has gone through a lot of transformations in the views and understanding about death. Religious beliefs in America can be traced back from the puritans. The puritans colonized New England in the 17th century (Joshi, 2006). Back then, the beliefs about death that were held by this group were completely different from what the American society believes presently. The theological branch that dealt with death back then put people in a frightening state in death. The idea of the puritans concerning death was that every persons fate, whether old or young, was to forever dwell in hell. They believed that only a few people who had been chosen by God would go to heaven (Twomey, 2007). This group of people was only known to God. In this case, people had no control over their fate. They were left with no other option but to live a clean life, praying that they would be among the selected few who would see heaven. Because of this belief, the time of death was the most tormenting time in a persons life. Death was not taken with calmness and acceptance. Due to the fact that there was no assurance of a persons fate after death, even to the most religious people, death was a period of terror and torment. Without knowing whether a person was among the selected few, the thought of burning for ever in hell was unbearable. As a result these people approached their death with doubt, fear and dread (Joshi, 2006).<br />
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The key purpose of belief is to provide people with a rough idea on what to expect after death. Most cultures believe that they know what happens to their people when they die. As a result they possess a mental image of where the dead goes and why they die. It a common belief across most cultures that death came up as a result of the fall of man. This is in other words as a result of mans fall from Gods grace. In this case death is everywhere and it is a reminder of Gods authority over his people. It was such belief that was held by the puritans (Joshi, 2006).<br />
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As time went by, the belief of the puritans started loosing ground. The community, due to enlightenment, came to realize that it was no use for a person to live a clean life while realizing that they were most likely destined to destruction. This was the cause for the society to do away with the beliefs of puritans. In fact this was the alternative taken by most people in the community. Due to this, people view of life and beliefs concerning death transformed (Joshi, 2006).<br />
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By the period of the American Revolution the sanctified view of death had been done away with completely. By the 19th century, the puritan view of death had disappeared completely and its place taken by a more naturalistic view. In this approach, the concern was not more on the dead individual but the immediate family. It is during this period that secularism began to take effect. In America secularism has affected the social values to great extent. It has brought in a lot of changes in the society (Twomey, 2007). This has made death and death-related issues to become less spiritual. Secularism has resulted to death becoming easily avoidable than was possible in the past. Although there were no major changes in the Indian culture concerning death, secularism brought in a few changes. The ritual of visiting graves was done away with. There was also a reduction in the mourning period. There were other simple changes, but the view of death in this culture never changed (Piven, 2004).<br />
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Even if Islamic is not the only religion practiced in India it has grown to be one of the most dominant in the region. The work of Islamic religion concerning death is detailed in the kit al-ruh. This can be translated to the book of soul. This book was recorded in the 14th century. According to the Islamic religion, death is predetermined by God. It is Allah who gives people life, decides the length of their life on earth, and decides their death (Tillett, 2005).<br />
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In both the American and the Indian culture bodies of the dead are disposed amid rituals. In the American culture the rituals performed are not as diverse as those performed in the Indian culture especially by the Hindus. The Hindu community cremates their dead and in most cases, the ashes are then buried. In American, most of the communities bury their dead. Muslims also bury the dead. It is worth noting that even in the American community, there are those who opt to bury dead people. This is not directed by any cultural belief, but it is directed by personal choice. In both cultures bodies are well prepared for ultimate disposal. In the Muslim community, the body is washed by people who are experienced in this field (Frykenberg, 2003). The body is then wrapped in a white cloth, and then put into the grave. There is usually no viewing of the body, except by the immediate relatives. The participants believe that, by participating in the ceremony, they will rewarded by God. Islam put the dying person facing Mecca (Roppolo and Crow, 2007).<br />
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In the past, different societies in America believed in contact with the dead. This is a practice that was carried out by spiritualists. In the American society, the development of science affected their view on death (Twomey, 2007). Most scholars and theorists began challenging the idea of god as the giver and ultimate taker of life. In contrast, this idea has never affected Muslims belief on the omnipotent Allah as the giver and taker of life. Science came in with evolution theory as an explanation of where people come from and their ultimate end. This theory is an argument that life evolves constantly. The beliefs of the society concerning death changed with the development of science being in a position to relieve peoples suffering through improved medicine. The development of the germ theory challenged the belief that it was God who caused people to die. In the images of the many who chose to believe in the scientific theory, the place of God as the control of nature was taken up by the scientific explanations. Science brought up an argument that death is not governed by the laws of nature. Therefore as people were in a position to be in command of nature, then they could control mortality as well. The Indian culture even with the development of scientific theories, still holds to the fact that they do not have any control over death (Piven, 2004).<br />
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In the 19th century the view of death as a natural occurrence had taken effect. In the American culture, death began to loose its sacred touch in the 19th century continuing up to the current time. Though most Christians and other religious factions in the United States still see death in a religious light, most of the Americans view it as a natural occurrence and when it happens, it does not cause a lot of fuss. Some authors have referred America as a death-rejecting society. Compared to the Indian community, the United States does not take death and the things related to it seriously. The Alaskan Indians have been referred to as death-affirming. This is due to the fact that they are well prepared for it and the moment it comes, every person in the community participates. Proof of American denial to death can be obtained from the Kubler-Ross states. This are practices in the united states of placing their dead in sterile facilities away from everybody. The places where these death people put are normally not visited by anyone, no even friends and relatives. In America death is usually referenced with euphemisms (Cassell, 2005). No one in the United States is open in discussing death and the dying is avoided even by the relatives. Dead people are usually removed from their beds very fast and put away until when they are collected for burial. Man-made carpeting is utilized to mask the earth at the burial ground. In most cases the bereaved are given mild sedatives so that they do not suffer the pain caused by death of a beloved one. These are all revelations of denial in death (Roppolo and Crow, 2007). This can also be observed in the way the bereaved acts after the death of someone close. The first thing they do mostly is to remove all the items of the dead person so that they are not always reminded of the death. In the Indian culture, there is acceptance and understanding of death. They do not deny it as the Americans do. Death is taken as part of their faith in God. They fully understand that it is the destiny of every one and that it is their religious duty to accept and participate in death-related rites (Twomey, 2007). <br />
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Despite the fact that America is a multiculture society, there has been one uniform aspect as far as death is concerned. Across all cultures in the United States there is the aspect of institutionalizing burials. Unlike other cultures like the Indian, burials in most of the United States have less involvement of the relatives and other members of the society. There is usually the fast removal of the body from the funeral facility, embalming, organized viewing, and speedy burial (Cassell, 2005). All the preparations for the burial are carried out through hired services. In most of the Indian community, the respect and the sacred image of death is still prevalent. In the Indian community, death is viewed as the whole family and society event. There is still the element of the dying person being allowed to see his family and as much as possible given the chance to set things in order before dying. In America, there are facilities like hospices and nursing homes where the dying is isolated as they await their final moments. People here are rarely visited and when this happen, it is usually for a few hours. In India people who are about to die are kept company by relatives and friends who encourages them and assure them that they are not alone. Mourning in the Indian community is a major even where the whole community participates. Various rituals are performed in a systematic way (Piven, 2004).<br />
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Conclusion<br />
This paper is a research on the similarities and differences of death in Indian and American cultures. The similarities in the two cultures view of death are brought about by the fact that they both know that death is inevitable. The various processes that reflect the acceptance of death in people is culturally defined thus created the differences in the two cultures. In the Indian society, nothing much has changed in the view and understanding of death. In America on the other hand, since the time of the puritans, a lot has changed in their view and understanding of death. In India religion is part of culture. Death is connected to religious. This is the reason why in India death and issues related to death do not change. America culture on the other hand has become totally separated from religious issues. There is a very big distinction between culture and religion in the United States.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-36757595624656666852017-03-04T08:24:00.004-08:002017-03-04T08:24:42.796-08:00Todays Nightlife on ABC is a Product of Classical and Operant ConditioningThe Classical Conditioning Theory by Ivan Pavlov explains the role of the environment and experiences in stimulating responses that result into learning. In his experimentation with dogs, the dog learnt to salivate at the sound of a bell after several experiences of ringing the bell whenever food was presented. The food was the unconditional stimulus (US) since it could elicit a response (salivation) naturally. The original response produced by the unconditioned stimuli is referred to as the unconditioned response (UR). Eventually, after repeated bearing of food and the sound of a bell, the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food, and started to salivate once it rang even if no food was presented afterwards. In this case, the bell is the conditioned stimuli (CS) a stimulus that elicits a response after association with the unconditioned stimuli. The response caused by such a stimuli (CS) is called the conditioned response (CR). A natural stimulus is one that does not elicit any response.<br />
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Operant Conditioning Theory by B.F Skinner posits that some responses are learned because they produced pleasant consequences, rather than because they were associated with an existing stimulus-response connection (Hayes and Orrell, 19). He called it the Law of Effect, since what resulted after a certain behavior either discouraged or reinforced the behavior. For instance, say excellent after a correct answer by a student will reinforce the behavior of answering questions.<br />
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A positive reinforcement is one where a certain behavior is rewarded, such as buying a child a gift or prize after posting good academic results. The gift will motivate the student and other learners to work hard. Negative reinforcement takes place when a certain behavior is rewarded by exempting the person from undesirable experiences or activities. For instance, a student who gets to school on time may be excluded from manual work.<br />
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Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is discouraged by subjecting the person to undesirable experiences, such as caning. Negative punishment is achieved by denying the person something desirable, e.g. restrictions such as going for break or a walk. Primary reinforcement satisfies the needs of a person immediately, such as giving good grades for hard work. Secondary reinforcement is achieved when something else is associated with the primary reinforcement. For instance, getting a good job is a secondary reinforcement associated with good grades<br />
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In human beings, classical conditioning takes place after a desired experience (US) is associated for a time with a another experience not originally desired (CS). With time, people get used with the new experience by associating it with the originally desired experience. For purposes of demonstration, I chose the Nightlife TV program aired by ABC in the US. The program began in November 8 1979, a few days after some Americans were held hostage in Iran, in what came to be popularly known as The Iran Hostage Crisis. By then, NBS was updating Americans daily on the situation. NBS program, the Tonight Show was a primetime hit since the hostage news was a national sensation. After launching the Nightlife, it became very popular as it gave a daily briefing by anchor Tedd Koppel The Iran CrisisAmerica Held Hostage (Bilhartz and Elliot, 232).<br />
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However, with time, especially after the 444 days of hostage, Nightlife began featuring other subjects such as politics and celebrity life. Nonetheless, the audience had been already conditioned by the hostage reportage to get hooked to Nightlife, even when the initial attraction (news from Iran) had been removed. Its still a favorite program in most American homes, resisting the effect of time. This is what the conditioning theorists call reinforcements resistance to extinction (Hayes and Orrell, 20), that is, impacting upon a person long after it had ceased.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-15182493054770369412017-03-04T08:24:00.001-08:002017-03-04T08:24:09.728-08:00Eyewitness Memory AccuracyGeneral Introduction<br />
The topic selected for this report is Eyewitness recollection accuracy. The topic is of exemplary importance because it is one that has practical implications. A research performed in this area serves to contribute to the perception regarding the practice of taking eyewitness testimonies into account during legal proceedings. Needless to highlight, countless cases have been brought to their resolutions after taking eyewitness testimonies into consideration.<br />
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The research performed in this area on the other hand, reveals that the accuracy of eyewitness memory retention and recollection is far from accurate. It is because of this reason that there is a need for credible and research in the area that can serve to eliminate this paradox.<br />
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Article 1 Introduction<br />
The research in the article addresses the problem or question outlined by attempting to study the legitimacy of eyewitness statements by establishing the degree to which eyewitnesses are able to accurately recall what they have seen (Megreya Burton, 2008).<br />
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This approach is different from most of the previous researches performed in this area because previous researches fundamentally chose to rely on live targets to carry out their experiments while this research chose to make use of photographs instead of live targets (Megreya Burton, 2008).<br />
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Article 1 Hypothesis<br />
The study was designed to test the hypothesis that sought to establish the degree of efficiency with which viewers were able to accurately match photographs to live people under a minimal set of constraints. The variables involved in the study were the targets and the stimuli. The research specifically sought to test the efficiency of photographic to recognize individuals present in person, from their photographs (Megreya Burton, 2008). This efficiency was measured by presenting participants with opportunities to match individuals present in person with a set of photographs in order to determine the efficiency with which they managed to do so correctly. The result expected from the research was the recording of a broadly low degree of efficiency for face matching abilities, indicating poor performance in memories of eyewitnesses.<br />
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Article 1 Method<br />
The research employed three different experiments to test the singular hypothesis. The first experiment entailed the testing of immediate memory and used exposure to static video images, followed by exposure to a line-up of 10 faces in which only one was the same as the one shown in the static video image five seconds earlier. The second method removed the five second gap and the targets and the line-up and target images were put forth simultaneously (Megreya Burton, 2008). This was followed by the third method in which the participants were provided with pairs of faces some of which were identical while others bore little or no resemblance. The purpose of all three experiments was to test the face processing system in order to test the hypothesis.<br />
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Article 1 Results<br />
The result from the first experiment held that there was no difference between the accuracy of the recognition in photographed and live targets. Efficiency levels for both target-present and target-absent testing procedures were found to be considerably low. Participants performed poorly in identifying the faces even thought the setting was one that gave them an optimal environment (Megreya Burton, 2008). The results from the second experiment showed that the participants were unable to positively recognize photographs even though they were present in optimal conditions. The third experiment asserted that the degree of accuracy to which individuals can match a real person to a photograph is the same as that of matching two photographs.<br />
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Article 1 Conclusion<br />
The research concluded that the presence of a live target has no positive implications on positive identification and misidentifications were frequent. The research, through its multiple experiments, also concluded that the overall procedure of the encoding of unfamiliar faces is riddled with difficulty (Megreya Burton, 2008). At this point, the research established its stance as one which agreed with former researches that had reported low accuracy rates.<br />
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It is essential to note that the research, in its first experiment, made use of a very brief time interval between exposure to target and the test array. This makes it considerably different from a real-world situation in which the interval can span well over hours. Also, the experiment did not take any other real-world variables into account (Megreya Burton, 2008). While no considerable drawbacks were established for the second experiment, the third experiment incorporated the drawback of possibly incorporating bias in its findings. The key question that went unanswered in the research was the degree to which the difference between laboratory settings and reality differ and the implications that the differences have.<br />
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Article 2 Introduction<br />
The research in the article addresses the subject outlined in your general introduction through a series of three experiments (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). Each of these experiments was meant to acquire a better understanding of how eyewitness recollection can be stimulated through re-contextualization and a supporting of the ability to discriminate between seemingly similar targets.<br />
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The approach is not too different from other researches because it attempts to explore the subject of the study through a multi-experiment approach, which appears to be customary in the case of studies exploring eyewitness recollection accuracy.<br />
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Article 2 Hypothesis<br />
The research considers the hypothesis that eyewitnesses tend to exercise a leniency bias that causes them to correctly identify just as many targets as they incorrectly identify. The study also hypothesizes that participants tend to negatively identify targets in a majority of the scenarios (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). The variables considered by the study include those such as time interval between the incident and the recognition test, the feedback, the emotional status of the eyewitness, the presence of racial or ethnic bias in the eyewitnesses perceptions.<br />
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The study specifically aims to test the social-cognition approach to the memory of eyewitnesses. The research claims that many few studies in the past have done so and sets this as its focus in the earlier paragraphs of the study (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). This measurement was made through three differing yet related experiments, each of which was designed to probe into the subject of the research through a relatable yet unique perspective.<br />
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Article 2 Method<br />
The first experiment made use of a slide show that was synthetically composed in an attempt to generate a scenario incorporating numerous people in movement. Several recognition tests were carried out through exposure to numerous targets. A total of eighty research participants were used (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). The second experiment incorporated almost the same fundamentals as the first experiment but entailed a drastic increase in the number of possibilities. The third experiment moved away from the sequence that the research had been following in the first and second experiments. The third experiment exposed participants to elements such as late impressions and the cognitive interview, both of which were designed to assess whether an improvement change occurred in the eyewitnesses recollection.<br />
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Article 2 Results<br />
It was observed as a result of the first experiment that explicit memory is influenced considerably as a result of impression formation (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). It was observed as a result of the first experiment that explicit memory is influenced considerably as a result of impression formation.<br />
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Article 2 Conclusion<br />
The research concluded that former researches in the area of eyewitness memory and recollection hold weight since it was revealed that formation of impression stimulates accurate recollection (Fiedler, Kaczor, Haarmann, Stegmuller, Maloney, 2009). The research also concluded that the augmentation of an impression-formation task serves to bring about a dramatic increase in the accuracy of the eyewitnesses recollections. The authors brought the research to a conclusion by highlighting the need for further research and elaborating on the increased severity of the variables in real world circumstances as opposed to a controlled laboratory setting. The findings of the research experienced limitations in terms of the absence of a theoretical explanation behind the cognitive processes. The researchers also present numerous questions as recommendations for further research towards the end of the article.<br />
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General Discussion<br />
It is apparent from the details of the two articles discussed above that eyewitness memory comes across as a rather weak instrument to consider reliable when taking testimonies from eyewitnesses. Of the two articles chosen, one was a recent research while the second served to provide a comprehensive view of the body of research that is present. Both the studies showed that eyewitness memory is far from reliable. It was observed that eyewitness recollections are inaccurate in optimal research conditions and can therefore be expected to be even worse in real-world scenarios.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-689672267362570274.post-19018730357486517552017-03-04T08:23:00.002-08:002017-03-04T08:23:26.777-08:00Couple Marriage Interview The marriage interview was conducted on a couple that lives in my neighborhood and requested to remain anonymous while committing complete sincerity to the exercise. The purpose of the marriage interview was to explore the manner in which a couple runs into complications and to comprehend how underlying causes contribute to changes in the relationship while exploring the concepts of psychology that apply to the case. The interview was conducted by making the participating couple sit on a wide sofa in a comfortable sitting room. The couple had been married for almost nine years now and both the husband and the wife were in their mid thirties.<br />
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The interview began by asking each of them about the qualities that they had always desired in hisher spouse (Feldman, 1996). It was observed that both of them were in unanimous agreement about wanting commitment, honesty, affection, reliability and intimacy from each other. However, the unity in the answers came forth as short-lived when each was asked how long heshe had expected it to last when they got married. In this case, the wife expressed doubts about how long the marriage was going to last while the husband sat in a bit of awe to the response of the wife. When asked why she was doubtful, she replied that she had always been a little scared of marriage and the extensive commitment it entailed.<br />
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The couple has two children and the next question inquired upon was whether or not having children had put strain on their marriage. It was observed that the husband considered some strain to have dawned on the marriage while the wife held a positive outlook about the children and their implications on the marriage.<br />
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The couple was then asked about the part of their marriage that they appreciate the most. The husband and the wife were somewhat romantic in response to this question as the wife mentioned the warmth her husbands arms and the husband mentioned her beautiful smile that gave him a reason to struggle in his life. It was evident that whatever the reasons, the setup allowed them to maintain considerable affection towards each other.<br />
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The couple was also asked about how they handle problems and arguments. It was observed that there was a bit of a conflict between them in this regard since the husband stated that he usually apologizes no matter whose mistake it is while the wife stated that she generally chooses to forget everything that happened and take him back.<br />
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The couple was asked about their perception of a typical marriage. They replied that a typical marriage in these times has mutated into a form where it is more a resort and less of a marriage. They were unanimous in the denouncing of the increasing frequency of divorce and stated that they considered such marriages to be of no use and that couples who think that there are chances for divorce within a few years of their marriage should not get married to begin with. It was evident that the areas they disagreed on served to strengthen the relationship between the couple (Booth, Crouter, Clements, 2001).<br />
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In order to probe further, the couple was asked to consider a hypothetical situation in which they had divorced. They were asked to determine what they would lose in case a divorce took place under such a worst case scenario. The husband and the wife looked stricken with shock at the very question and refused to answer the question, requesting that I move on to the next question. It was inferred from this particular response that the couple, under unanimous consent, chooses to remain in a self-induced state of denial about the possibilities of divorce.<br />
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The husband and the wife both expressed a fear of the family and friends of their spouse. Both expressed that they held a strong desire to be acknowledged by their spouses family and friends when they had begun their relationship. The desire to be accepted was observed to be a strong one in this case.<br />
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In order to determine differences within the couple, they were then asked about their favorite parts of the marriage. While the husband and wife both agreed upon physical intimacy, the husband added elements such as having a wife to come home to and watching television with the children. For the wife, other elements included those such as watching the children learn and grow and conversations with the husband after he arrives home from work. It is apparent that while each appears to have a differing in this case, they are actually on the same page.<br />
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The couple interview served to show that remarkable differences between couples can exist even if they have been married for years (Gurman, 2008). In addition, disagreements are frequently settled by resorting to unanimously agreed upon states of denial. When a couple is faced with potential threats to marriage, they tend to find grounds on which they can put aside differences and disagreements in order to sustain and maintain their marriage. This is valid mostly in cases where the husband and the wife find a reason to stay together, such as the children in this case.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0